Adaptation pathways for climate-resilient development: selected cases in Cambodia, Myanmar and the Philippines

This study was conducted to provide an understanding of the adaptation decisions of households, communities and local government units frequently affected by climatic related hazards, track and examine their adaptation strategies, and analyse if these are building the community's climate resilience. Primary data were gathered through key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and household survey in each country. Secondary data on climate hazards and impacts, socio-demographic characteristics and development indicators of study areas, climate change adaptation and/or disaster risk management plans, and development plans were gathered from various sources. Cambodia, Myanmar and the Philippines have repeatedly experienced extreme climate events such as typhoons, flood and drought causing severe losses and damages to crop, properties and livelihood. Household adaptation measures implemented across study locations were largely reactive in nature. While there had been expression of adaptation plans, these were mainly focused on short-term measures that aimed to protect the households and livelihood. Rural households need to adopt more proactive ways, with long-term perspective in order to anticipate and manage risks. However, ensuring proactive adaptation strategies requires community-level participation and a strong enabling environment to facilitate collective action. At the institutional level, adaption strategies evolved from structural (e.g., infrastructure/engineering interventions) to non-structural (e.g., knowledge-based technology such as early warning system). In recent years, institutional innovations evolved with mainstreaming climate change and disaster risk reduction and management in local development planning. This places more emphasis on resilience, unlike in the past where the focus was on relief and recovery. For the three countries, the institutional breakthrough around 2011 was the Climate Change Action Plan aiming for more resilience-oriented strategies. This was also an outcome of the countries' commitment to international response to climate change. As climate change projections indicate greater risks in the future, adaptation planning may need to reinforce resilience building. Currently, there is no established mechanism on monitoring and evaluation of adaptation strategies. Based on assessment of the community, experts, and literature review, there are advantages and disadvantages of current adaptation strategies in terms of cost, technical, and other development aspects such as land use that have to be considered in adaptation decisions. Adaptation strategies for agriculture remained over the years to be agronomic (e.g., drought/flood resistant plant cultivars). Such low-cost adaptation measures may not be sufficient to offset the significant climate change damages. With huge losses experience in severe El Niño incidents, drought management solutions must consider a long-term perspective. In terms of infrastructure intervention, flood control structures, may have possible externalities as illustrated in the resulting salt water intrusion from the construction of a river channel , consequently, leading to conversion of rice to fishponds. Reconstruction and repair structures (e.g., irrigation facilities) damaged from extreme weather events may in the long term encourage development and land uses in vulnerable areas, as owners know that government will help repair any damages caused by a climate-related event. This could disrupt development programs and reinforces a state of underdevelopment.