Insect pathogens as biological control agents: Do they have a future

Naturally occurring entomopathogens are important regulatory factors in insect populations. Many species are employed as biological control agents of insect pests in row and glasshouse crops, orchards, ornamentals, range, turf and lawn, stored products, and forestry and for abatement of pest and vector insects of veterinary and medical importance. The comparison of entomopathogens with conventional chemical pesticides is usually solely from the perspective of their efficacy and cost. In addition to efficacy, the advantages of use of microbial control agents are numerous. These include safety for humans and other nontarget organisms, reduction of pesticide residues in food, preservation of other natural enemies, and increased biodiversity in managed ecosystems. As with predators and parasitoids, there are three basic approaches for use of entomopathogens as microbial control agents: classical biological control, augmentation, and conservation. The use of a virus (Oryctes nonoccluded virus), a fungus (Entomophaga maimaiga), and a nematode (Deladenus siricidicola) as innoculatively applied biological control agents for the long-term suppression of palm rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros), gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), and woodwasp (Sirex noctilio), respectively, has been successful. Most examples of microbial control involve inundative application of entomopathogens. The most widely used microbial control agent is the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The discovery of new varieties with activity against Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera and their genetic improvement has enhanced the utility of this species. Recent developments in its molecular biology, mode of action, and resistance management are reviewed. Examples of the use, benefits, and limitations of entomopathogenic viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and protozoa as inundatively applied microbial control agents are presented. Microbial control agents can be effective and serve as alternatives to broad-spectrum chemical insecticides. However, their increased utilization will require (1) increased pathogen virulence and speed of kill; (2) improved pathogen performance under challenging environmental conditions (cool weather, dry conditions, etc.); (3) greater efficiency in their production; (4) improvements in formulation that enable ease of application, increased environmental persistence, and longer shelf life; (5) better understanding of how they will fit into integrated systems and their interaction with the environment and other integrated pest management (IPM) components; (6) greater appreciation of their environmental advantages; and (7) acceptance by growers and the general public. We envision a broader appreciation for the attributes of entomopathogens in the near to distant future and expect to see synergistic combinations of microbial control agents with other technologies. However, if future development is only market driven, there will be considerable delays in the implementation of several microbial control agents that have excellent potential for use in IPM programs.