Local climate and vernalization sensitivity predict the latitudinal patterns of flowering onset in the crop wild relative Linum bienne Mill.

• Background and Aims The timing of flowering onset is often correlated with latitude, indicative of climatic gradients. Flowering onset in temperate species commonly requires exposure to cold temperatures, known as vernalization. Hence, population differentiation of flowering onset with latitude might reflect adaptation to the local climatic conditions experienced by populations. • Methods Within its western range, seeds from Linum bienne populations (the wild relative of cultivated Linum usitatissimum) were used to describe the latitudinal differentiation of flowering onset to determine its association with the local climate of the population. A vernalization experiment including different crop cultivars was used to determine how vernalization accelerates flowering onset, in addition to the vernalization sensitivity response among populations and cultivars. Additionally, genetic differentiation of L. bienne populations along the latitudinal range was scrutinized using microsatellite markers. • Key Results Flowering onset varied with latitude of origin, with southern populations flowering earlier than their northern counterparts. Vernalization reduced the number of days to flowering onset, but vernalization sensitivity was greater in northern populations compared with southern ones. Conversely, vernalization delayed flowering onset in the crop, exhibiting less variation in sensitivity. In L. bienne, both flowering onset and vernalization sensitivity were better predicted by the local climate of the population than by latitude itself. Microsatellite data unveiled genetic differentiation of populations, forming two groups geographically partitioned along latitude. • Conclusions The consistent finding of latitudinal variation across experiments suggests that both flowering onset and vernalization sensitivity in L. bienne populations are under genetic regulation and might depend on climatic cues at the place of origin. The association with climatic gradients along latitude suggests that the climate experienced locally drives population differentiation of the flowering onset and vernalization sensitivity patterns. The genetic population structure suggests that past population history could have influenced the flowering initiation patterns detected, which deserves further work.

Fellowship programme of the University of Portsmouth

CONACyT (Mexico) Postdoctoral Research Fellowship

Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)

UK BBSRC CASE PhD studentship BB/R506321/1

Grant from the Wild Flower Society

Travel grant from the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund

Grant to R. P-B (PID2021-127264NB-100) funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 “ERDF A way of making Europe”

The open access funding was provided by the University of Granada/CBUA.