Results from the photolysis ofo, p-dichlorobenzene, bromobenzene, andp-dibromobenzene in water ice are reported. All phototransformations appeared to be based on dehalogenation, coupling, and rearrangement reactions in ice cavities. No photosolvolysis products, i.e. products from intermolecular reactions between organic and water molecules, were found. Many of the products were very toxic substances of a high environmental risk, such as PCBs. The results support our model, in which secondary, very toxic, pollutants can be formed in ice, snow, and atmospheric ice particles from primary pollutants through the action of solar irradiation. The photoproducts may be released to the environment by ice melting and evaporation.

This book provides a review and guide to environmental policy options for the control of agricultural pollution (particularly water pollution) and the economic, administrative and political merits of such policies. The principal focus is on the developed world, particularly North America and Europe. The book covers: the issues concerning agriculture and water quality; the voluntary and indirect approaches for reducing externalities and satisfying multiple objectives; the estimation of the benefits and costs of pollution control policies; the pollution control policies in the USA and EU; and the decomposition of the effects of trade on the environment. The book contains 7 chapters and a subject index.

Ongoing deliberations on the regulation of semivolatile organic chemicals require the assessment of chemical transport in atmospheric and marine systems. The characteristic travel distance was proposed as a measure for the transport potential in air and water. However, the existing definition treats the transport processes separately. It is shown that combined transport in coupled air-ocean systems can accelerate the overall transport into remote regions. Concentration ratios in air and water change with distance from sources depending on the initial concentration ratio and on the difference between the transport velocities. A measure is suggested facilitating the chemical screening with respect to transport potentials in such air-ocean systems. A case study for α and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane shows that the suggested measure qualitatively reveals the transport potentials of these chemicals and exemplifies possible concentration patterns.

In the last years, the spatial range (SR) or characteristic travel distance (CTD) of organic chemicals has found increasing scientific interest as an indicator of the long-range transport (LRT) potential and, in combination with persistence, as a kind of ‘hazard’ indicator on the exposure level. This development coincides with European debates about more effective and more preventive approaches to the chemicals assessment, and about an international, legally-binding instrument for the phase out of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Persistence and LRT potential are important issues in these debates. Here, the development of the concept of assessing the spatial scale from early ideas in the 1970s and 1980s to recent studies in the field of multimedia fate and transport modeling is summarized. Different approaches to the modeling of environmental transport (advective and dispersive) and different methods for quantifying the SR or CTD are compared. Relationships between SR or CTD and different persistence measures are analyzed. Comparison of these relationships shows that conclusions for chemical assessment should be based on an evaluation of different persistence and spatial scale measures. The use of SR or CTD and persistence as hazard indicators in the chemicals assessment is illustrated.

The incentives and approaches for modelling chemical fate at a continental scale are discussed and reviewed. It is suggested that a multi-media model consisting of some 20–30 regions, each of which contains typically seven environmental compartments represents a reasonable compromise between the issues of the need for detailed resolution, avoidance of excessive data demands and inherent complexity and transparency. Strategies adopted in compiling the Berkley-Trent (BETR) model for North America are discussed and used to illustrate the issues of selecting appropriate number and nature of segments, treatment of air and water flows and the acquisition of environmental data. It is suggested that GIS software can play a valuable role in gathering and processing such data and in the display and interpretation of the results of the model assessment. The BETR model will be a useful tool for describing the nature of persistence and long-range transport of chemicals of concern in the North American environment.

The principles of precaution and sustainability require more consideration in the assessment of environmental risks posed by chemicals and genetically modified organisms. Instead of applying risk reduction measures when there are serious indications for damage, full scientific certainty is often waited for before taking action. The precautionary principle particularly should be applied in those cases in which the extent and probability of damage are uncertain, e.g. in the case of persistent chemicals which are additionally bioaccumulative or highly mobile. Based on these principles, environmental action targets for risks associated with GMOs and chemicals can be developed. Risk management not only includes statutory measures but also instruments designed to influence behaviour indirectly are important to achieve the goals. Particularly for risks of GMOs which provoke fear, risk communication is important. Some rules to which attention should be paid in communication with the public are presented.

We present the Berkeley-Trent North American contaminant fate model (BETR North America), a regionally segmented multimedia contaminant fate model based on the fugacity concept. The model is built on a framework that links contaminant fate models of individual regions, and is generally applicable to large, spatially heterogeneous areas. The North American environment is modeled as 24 ecological regions, within each region contaminant fate is described using a 7 compartment multimedia fugacity model including a vertically segmented atmosphere, freshwater, freshwater sediment, soil, coastal water and vegetation compartments. Inter-regional transport of contaminants in the atmosphere, freshwater and coastal water is described using a database of hydrological and meteorological data compiled with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) techniques. Steady-state and dynamic solutions to the 168 mass balance equations that make up the linked model for North America are discussed, and an illustrative case study of toxaphene transport from the southern United States to the Great Lakes Basin is presented. Regionally segmented models such as BETR North America can provide a critical link between evaluative models of long-range transport potential and contaminant concentrations observed in remote regions. The continent-scale mass balance calculated by the model provides a sound basis for evaluating long-range transport potential of organic pollutants, and formulation of continent-scale management and regulatory strategies for chemicals.

Papers on Malaysia -- Thailand -- Australia.