A study was undertaken to understand local knowledge and practices of communities in animal management as a step in designing and implementation of communitybased breeding programs for four local breeds (Afar, Bonga, Horro and Menz) in four sites in Ethiopia. Workshops were held with the project communities to learn their animal management practices, among others the selection of rams and ewes, ram sharing and grazing management. Breeding management skills were studied by conducting heritability and genetic correlation exercises. The most important animal traits for the different production systems were identified from a systems study. Phenotypic, production, and reproduction traits were used either in the form of drawings or verbal explanations. Pairwise combinations of the traits were presented to the communities to express their choices via voting. For evaluating heritability, the communities were asked which trait pair is relatively more heritable than the other. For the correlation exercise, the communities were asked to estimate the magnitude (high, low, and none) of relationship between the traits in each pair. The results indicate that farmers and pastoralists have good skills in sheep management. Although the mating system is generally uncontrolled, the farmers have a tradition of exchanging of rams. All farmers/pastoralists exercise ewe and ram selection based on phenotypic appearance and recalled pedigree. Their knowledge on heritability of traits and genetic correlations between traits more or less concurs with scientific evidence in literature. For example, qualitative traits (like colour) were judged highly heritable followed by production traits. Knowledge of correlations is used for indirect selection when the target traits are either impossible to assess on the live animal or are sexlimited. Indigenous knowledge and existing practices in the communities, developed through years of practical experience, provide an excellent basis for designing sheep breeding programs.

A study to develop body weight prediction equations based on various body measurements was conducted in rural Kamuli district, Uganda. Body weight (kg) and body measurement data (cm) were collected from 411 pigs between 15 and 127 kg from both local and exotic (mainly crossbreds) pigs. Five body measurements; body length, heart girth, height, body width and flank-to-flank were taken from each pig. Prediction models were developed by regressing weight on pig body measurements. The models were developed for pigs categorized as < 40kg, ≥ 40 kg and an overall single prediction model. Mean weights of < 40 kg and ≥ 40 kg were 27 ± 6.5 kg and 63 ± 19.6 kg, respectively. Body length and heart girth were used to predict (R2 = 0.89) weight for the < 40 kg pigs with the prediction equation; Weight = -41.814 + 0.296 (body length) + 0.654 (heart girth). Four body measurements; body length, heart girth, height and body width were strongly predictive (R2 = 0.92) of live body weight for the ≥ 40 kg pigs with the prediction equation; Weight = -108.198 + 0.228 (body length) + 1.094 (heart girth) + 0.267 (height) + 0.922 (body width). The flank-to-flank measurement did not affect model prediction (p > 0.05) and quadratic terms also did not improve accuracy and were not included in any prediction models. These results suggest that live weight could be accurately estimated using two or more pig body measurements. It was concluded that this weight estimation tool would empower Ugandan small scale pig farmers by providing them with an accurate estimate for the animal’s live weight and giving them better bargaining power when selling their pigs.

A study using participatory epidemiology (PE) methodologies was conducted in West Pokot and Baringo districts, Northern Rift Valley, Kenya to assess the status of East Coast Fever (ECF) and obtain livestock keepers’ perceptions of how the disease impacts on their livelihoods. A total of 658 livestock keepers comprising of 480 men and 178 women were invited to participate in community meetings held in twenty two purposively selected locations each in West Pokot and Baringo. Fifty six percent of the livestock keepers were from West Pokot while the remaining 54 percent were from Baringo District. Nearly all the households in both communities depended on cattle keeping as the major source of livelihood. The activity was ranked as priority enterprise by 96.2% and 93.3% of the groups in West Pokot and Baringo district respectively. Cattle diseases were identified as the main constraint affecting production and in particular, ECF and trypanosomosis were reported as the most important compared to other diseases. The informants were relatively consistent in estimating the impact of cattle diseases on derived benefits. There was good agreement among the various groups with coefficient of concordance (W) values ranging between 0.43 and 0.60 (p < 0:05 – p < 0.01). East Coast fever was found to have the greatest impact. Based on the findings from this study, there is need for stakeholders in the livestock industry to develop control strategies for ECF control that are supportive to the production system in a particular the region.

The objective was to perform an ex-ante economic evaluation of new, legume-based forage alternatives available to farmers in Latin American tropical lowlands. These alternatives included grasses of the Brachiaria genus and the legumes Stylosanthes guianensis, Cratylia argentea, and Arachis pintoi. Case studies, involving farmers participating in the CIAT-led Tropileche Consortia convened by ILRI, were conducted in the forest margins of Pucallpa (Peru) and in the hillsides of the dry tropics of Esparza (Costa Rica) and Esquipulas (Nicaragua). A linear programming farm model developed by CIAT to maximize income was used for this analysis. Animal management parameters were based on farm averages at each reference site evaluated so that they represented current management conditions. Similarly, the model incorporated the prices of inputs and products typical of each country. A constant herd size was assumed for all alternatives evaluated. Production costs per kilogram of milk were estimated as the maximum expression of competitiveness, using three cow productivity parameters: the current average production per lactation (800 kg in Peru, 1,000 kg in Nicaragua, and 1,350 kg in Costa Rica); and two postulated parameters: 1,500 kg/lactation and 2,000 kg/lactation. For all forage options, key factors analyzed were (1) milk production costs resulting from implementing each forage alternative; (2) the investment required to establish each option, assuming the same number of milking cows and herd fertility; (3) the feasibility of obtaining credit with a local bank to invest in a forage alternative; and (4) the percentage of pasture area on the farm freed for other uses as a result of establishing one of the forage alternatives. Results indicated that the forage alternatives evaluated significantly improved the competitiveness of dual purpose farms in the hillsides of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, reducing the cost of producing milk between 13% and 37% with increased stocking rates, releasing up to 36% of area allocated to pastures. However, under current commercial banking conditions (real interest rates of 13% in Costa Rica and 18% in Nicaragua with payback periods of 5 years), the implementation of the options evaluated were not financially viable except for the establishment of Cratyla with sugarcane for dry-season feeding and Stylosanthes for pre-weaned calves. For all options to be implemented with commercial credit, a longer payback period was needed (8-10 years) and lower real interest rates (5-10%). The case of the forest margins of Pucallpa, was different, as none of the forage options evaluated, except Stylosanthes for pre-weaned calves, improved the competitiveness of farms under current management and production conditions due to low milk yields per cow and low proportion of herd in milk, which increased depreciation cost/cow to levels which were not viable. In addition, Pucallpa has an excess supply of forage biomass from a reduced herd inventory during the 80s and a limited fresh milk market which makes adoption of improved forages low attractive by farmers.

Smallholder dairy farmers in developing countries face many feed constraints such as inadequate feed quality and quantity, poor storage facilities for feed conservation as well as insufficient water. However, feeding of livestock continues to pose many problems due to lack of information on composition and utilization of locally available feed resources. These problems are aggravated by lack of access to and high cost of feed inputs. The use of cheap and readily available local feed resources has great potential to increase livestock productivity. The East African Dairy Development project in Kenya, through use of various participatory rapid appraisal tools conducted a rapid appraisal study of three project areas. The objective was to assess feeds and feeding practices in smallholder dairy systems, identify feed resources available year round and where the gaps are as well as to determine what practices are available for improving production and utilization of feed resources in order to raise smallholder dairy production. Established opportunities for improvement include on-farm production and utilization of fodder, efficient storage, processing and utilization of crop residues, pasture improvement, appropriate water harvesting technologies, formulation of feed rations amongst small scale farmers, small scale feed conservation as well as development of fodder markets. Given the complex farming system within which smallholder farmers operate, changes are needed in both the technologies used for improving feeds and feeding systems and in the institutional and policy arrangements surrounding feed supply. In addition, technical interventions need to be developed in a participatory manner along with farmers and other stakeholders within the system to make them relevant and sustainable.

The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with occurrence of trypanosomosis in the first generation (F1) crossbreds between trypanotolerant Orma Boran and trypanosusceptible Teso zebu cattle in a trypanosomosis endemic area in Teso District, western Kenya. The offspring were screened for trypanosomosis and other haemoparasites using parasitological methods. Packed cell volume (PCV), body weights and tsetse density (FTD) were also determined. Factors considered in the analysis included sex, age, body weight and season of the year. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) were used for multivariable analysis to account for clustering of observations at the animal level and estimate outcome variance parameters. The overall trypanosomosis prevalence was 2.3% (n=477) probably corresponding to low FTD in the area (<1fly/trap/day). The risk of trypanosomosis infection was higher in dry than wet season (OR = 5.4) and in older than younger offspring (OR = 1.1). The variance parameters obtained indicated that variation of trypanosomosis prevalence lay only at the animal level. Intercurrent haemoparasites detected included Anaplasma marginale, Theileria and Babesia species. Overall, the results suggested that when the tsetse density is very low, control of trypanosomosis in the Orma-Teso zebu offspring in western Kenya require targeting of individual affected animals in the dry seasons.

A cross-sectional survey was carried out to characterize the pig production systems in four districts along the Kenya-Uganda border. Information was collected by administering structured questionnaires to 645 households in 32 randomly selected clusters. The study showed that the majority of the farmers owned very small pig herds (2.4±0.1) which were mainly tethered. Their main objective for pig keeping was income generation. Decisions on pig purchases were predominantly made by either women or by women and men in collaboration while day to day care of the animals was performed by women. Disease especially African swine fever (ASF) was considered to be the biggest risk to pig investment, while feeding was the biggest production constraint. Studies that look into cheaper locally available feed options should be undertaken to enable the farmers solve the feed constraint. Sensitization of farmers to adopt biosecurity measures would reduce disease risk especially ASF risk.

The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of fruits maturity stages at harvest on chemical composition, in vitro digestibility and in sacco degradability of Ficus surfruits (FSF). The treatments involved different maturity stages of Ficus sur fruits . Color, moisture content, and texture were used to distinguish among the fruit maturity stages. Fruits at early, mid, and late stages of maturity were collected from five trees and analyzed. The proximate composition of the fruits varied only slightly (0 to 3%) with the progress in maturity of the fruits. The exception was the DM content which increased from 45 to 87% with increasing maturity. The condensed tannins were low (<2%) for all the stages of maturity. In vitro and in sacco measurements indicated that the fruits at all stages of maturity were theoretically only slightly inferior to cereal grains as sources of digestible energy. However, the high washing loss in the in sacco study (38 to 42%) indicates that much of the digestible carbohydrate was in the form of soluble sugars which, depending on the levels used in the diet, could compromise the realizable net energy value of the diet. As in cereal grains, the crude protein content was relatively low (7.07 to 7.33% in DM).