Modelling of the domestic wastewater treatment and removal of the Ptotal in the vertical filters with the sand, dolomite powder and dolomite chippings each separately used as a filter media was performed. Six filter models taking 0.2 m2 each were installed. The length of the filtration path was equal to 0.8 m in three of these models and 0.4 m in the other three models. The hydraulic load on the filters was equal to 0.03 m3 mE-2 dE-1 in 2008, and it was equal to 0.06 m3 mE-2 dE-1 in 2009. The domestic wastewater which had undergone the pre-cleaning in the septic systems was poured into the models. Their average pollution with the Ptotal reached 14.6 mg LE-1 in the first year and 9.2 mg LE-1 in the second year. When the filtration path was equal to 0.8 m and the hydraulic load was equal to 0.03 m3 mE-2 dE-1, the Ptotal was removed from the wastewater with the efficiency of 99.9% in the dolomite powder filter. In the filter models with the sand and dolomite chippings, the Ptotal was removed with the same efficiency of 87.7%. When the hydraulic load doubled, the efficiency of P removal decreased to 59.8% in the sand filter and down to 45.7% in the dolomite chippings filter. When the hydraulic load reached 0.06 m3 mE-2 dE-1, only the dolomite powder filter could ensure the adequate cleaning of the domestic wastewater up to the allowable norms.

The article presents information on the greenery in the large-scale residential area courtyards built in the Soviet period. The data on the importance of the greenery in the large-scale residential areas of the Baltic States were analysed. The analysis was carried out on the large-scale residential area courtyards built in the second half of the 20th century in Pärnu, Jelgava, and Siauliai, which until present have not experienced any changes of the landscape. The research established that these courtyards can be characterised as the unused territory resources. Consequently, there is a necessity to resolve the topical issues of the greenery in the Soviet period large-scale residential area courtyards. From the theoretical aspect, the information gathered in the research on the greenery in the large-scale residential areas has revealed relevant suggestions for the improvement of the present condition. The variety of information reflects the significance of the greenery in the large-scale residential area courtyards that have to provide an aesthetically pleasant image of the territory for every inhabitant of the territory. The methods applied in the research describe the present condition of the Soviet period courtyards.

The change in landscape is a never-ending process. In this article information regarding watermills and small-scale hydroelectric power plants historical development in Latvia has been summarized. The research was conducted from September 2010 till April 2011 with the aim of summarizing information regarding impacts to landscape from changes occurring from 12th century till 21st century. The research had a detailed view about the usage history of the watermills, small-scale hydroelectric power plants buildings, and energy producing constructions. The fundamental changes in energy producing mechanisms and legislation regulations changes that have an impact on river open space landscape and on landscape use in surrounded territories of watermills and small-scale hydroelectric power plants landscape were analyzed and studied carefully. The territories were described and analysed using historical, monographic, and comparative methods. The paper gives possible descriptive historical classification of these industrial landscape elements. The historical progress and legislation evolution until the 21st century has also been summarized.

The report presents the assessment of emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) generated by the treatment, disposal and storage of sewage sludge in Latvia. The aim of the study was to determine GHG emissions from stored sludge because those were not previously estimated. The proposals for the further reduction of the GHG emissions are elaborated on the provided estimations of different treatment models. The calculations of GHG emissions are conducted by using acknowledged software and data from Latvian Environment, Geology and Meteorology Centre. Data from the year 2005 till 2009 about the amount of stored sludge were used by the authors for mathematical calculations in the year 2010. The long-term storage of sewage sludge and their disposal in landfills were detected as the main sources of GHG. It was detected that the average GHG reduction of 5 Gg per year can be ensured by using biological treatment of sewage sludge.

A cross-sectional survey was carried out to characterize the pig production systems in four districts along the Kenya-Uganda border. Information was collected by administering structured questionnaires to 645 households in 32 randomly selected clusters. The study showed that the majority of the farmers owned very small pig herds (2.4±0.1) which were mainly tethered. Their main objective for pig keeping was income generation. Decisions on pig purchases were predominantly made by either women or by women and men in collaboration while day to day care of the animals was performed by women. Disease especially African swine fever (ASF) was considered to be the biggest risk to pig investment, while feeding was the biggest production constraint. Studies that look into cheaper locally available feed options should be undertaken to enable the farmers solve the feed constraint. Sensitization of farmers to adopt biosecurity measures would reduce disease risk especially ASF risk.

The objective of this study was to understand the perception of agricultural producers in Colombia who currently do not own livestock about the role of cattle in alleviating poverty in their farms. Data came from direct survey interviews in 2002 with 143 farmers who did not own cattle in the five most important regions of animal production in Colombia to elicit their perception about the role of livestock as a pathway out of poverty. Selected regions were: Piedmont, Caribbean, the Coffee-growing region, the highlands of Antioquia, and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. Most smallholders interviewed in the Piedmont had cattle in the past (85%), followed by producers in Antioquia (60%) and least in the Coffee-growing region (39%). The most important reason for selling their cattle in all regions was due to financial crisis and needed cash (ie., from 27% of smallholders interviewed in the Caribbean and the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie to almost 50% in the Piedmont). Most smallholders surveyed used the money from the sale of animals to pay health bills of family members, to pay off debts, and/or to use the cash to survive due to crop failure from extreme weather conditions (ie., drought or frost damage). The most striking result is that 76% of farmers in Antioquia to 97% of smallholders in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie would like to own cattle if they had the opportunity. The most important reason for owning cattle in all regions was as a mechanism for savings and building capital. The second most important reason in all regions was to obtain milk and beef for family consumption, except in Antioquia where this issue was irrelevant. Other reasons for owning cattle were to reduce and diversify risk due to crop failure and to utilize manure as fertilizer. The preferred animal category to own in all regions was by far the milking cow, ranging from 52% of smallholders in Antioquia to 96% in the Cundiboyacense altiplanicie. Results from this study show that cattle are perceived by small-holder farmers as a contribution to the improvement in the quality of life. The challenge is to develop novel mechanisms to provide smallholders with livestock, either through credit loans or thru the Fondos Ganaderos of Colombia, whose objective is to help small farmers who have production capacity but lack the resources to buy cattle.

This paper describes a study aimed at evaluating the effect of selecting sires based on their breeding values for milk yield estimated in their countries of origin on reproductive performance of their daughters on large-scale dairy farms in Malawi. To do this an analysis was done using 2362 records of purebred Holstein Friesian cattle kept in Central and Southern Malawi from 1986 to 1996. Fixed effects of sire group, herd, year and season of calving were tested and random effects of dam and cow were included in the statistical model applied. (Co)variance components were estimated through the restricted maximum likelihood (REML) procedure. Mean number of services per conception (NSC) was 1.50, gestation interval (GI) was 277days, calving interval between first and second parity (CI1) was 416 days, calving interval between second and third parity two and three (CI2) was 408 days, and age at first calving (AFC) was 32.5 months. In general the majority of the reproductive traits were affected by the non-genetic factors of herd, year and season. Sire group, a proxy of the breeding strategy, had a significant effect on AFC (p<0.01) and CI2 (p<0.05). Factors that had significant effects (p<0.01) on most of the reproductive traits in the study were herd, year of insemination, year of calving, and season of insemination. Phenotypic correlation between NSC and AFC was 0.19, between NSC and GI was -0.05, while that between NSC and CI2 was 0.14. Heritability estimates for NSC, GI, CI1, and AFC were, 0.04, 0.10, 0.001, and 0.20, respectively. The high variation due to non-genetic factors and the low heritability estimates for the reproductive traits indicate that much improvement could be made through improved management, husbandry practices, and strategically utilizing environmental factors.

The objective of this paper was to evaluate the productivity of three indigenous goat breeds from Ethiopia namely Abergelle (AB), Central Highland (CH) and Woyto-Guji (WG) based on their kids’ total live weight at three months (LWW), survival rate to three months (S3M) and average daily milk yield (ADM, for AB only). The LWW were standardized by year and post partum weight (ppw) of does. In addition, productivities expressed as the body weight of three months old kids produced per doe per year (index I) and per kg ppw per year (Index II) were also assessed. The overall least squares means of LWW for AB, CH and WG were 7.6, 15.3 and 10.2 kg, respectively. The overall mean of the ADM for AB was 367.10±139.79 ml. The S3M was 76.30%, 78.50% and 77.70%, for AB, CH and WG, respectively. Overall means of index I and index II were 14.7 kg and 0.50, respectively. Year of birth affected (p<0.05) LWW and S3M of AB, CH and WG as well as the indices. The ADM and S3M of AB and LWW of WG were also influenced ( p<0.001) by village of kidding. The LWW and S3M of the three breeds were not influenced (p>0.05) by sex of lambs. On the other hand parity of birth had clear influence (p<0.05) on ADM and S3M of AB and index I. Season of birth also had influence (p <0.001) on LWW of AB only. The CH does produce about 200% LWW of AB does and about 150% LWW of WG does. The CH was found to be the most productive breed in terms of all assessed parameters followed by WG. The AB was best suited for dual services (meat and milk). Hence, goat meat investment priorities in Ethiopia could target Central Highland goats. However, the productivity of these goat breeds should be improved in their respective localities by minimizing possible factors hampering their productivity

The present study was conducted to justify that keeping birth weight (BWT) records have little or no significance in genetic improvements of market or adult weights of small ruminants while implementation of community based breeding program (CBBP). Analyses of Pearson correlations ("r") between BWT and six month (6MW), BWT and nine month weight (9MW), three month weight (3MW) and 6MW and 3MW and 9MW were conducted for three indigenous Ethiopian goat breeds, namely Abergelle (AB), Central Highland (CH) and Woyto-Guji (WG).