The concept of polycentric development at multinational, national and regional level is broadly used in academic research of regional development and spatial planning. It is also reflected in the normative agenda by the European Union. However, polycentricity has been considered a fuzzy concept, and it still lacks commonly accepted definition or measurement methods. Albeit a plethora of researchers and policy makers favours polycentric development as a tool for reduction of regional disparities, these statements are not based on empirical foundations. The research objectives are twofold and consecutive. The first objective is to define the morphological measures of polycentricity and apply these measures at country level. The second objective is to empirically test the following hypotheses: regional disparities in countries with polycentric urban system are less pronounced than in countries with monocentric urban system; income distribution in countries with polycentric urban system is more equal than in countries with monocentric urban system. The hypotheses stated by the objective of the study can be rejected: regional disparities in countries with polycentric urban system are not less pronounced than in countries with monocentric urban system; income distribution in countries with polycentric urban system is not more equal than in countries with monocentric urban system. The research results clearly suggest the polycentric development cannot be considered a tool for diminishing regional disparities and providing more cohesion between regions.

Since joining the European Union Latvian fish industry has undergone a serious process of change and reform. Not all of them were welcomed by people working in the industry or those related to it. Consequently, the reform backed by the European institutions and legislature changed the dynamics and consistency of Latvian fish industry. As of 2004 many Latvian fishing vessels were scraped and even greater number of smaller fishing boats followed the same fate. Fishing and processing of the catch for Latvian shore regions is not only one of common and basic occupations, but also provides a large spectre of other services, as fishing in general is a complex industry providing a lot of jobs for seashore residents, primarily in primary, and secondary sectors of economy, and in smaller extent in tertiary, more precisely in distribution, trade and food services. This paper focuses on a research conducted on the expansion of Latvian fish industry product export market from a spatial, geographic perspective and analyzes the volumes and directions of outflow of goods to the recipient countries worldwide in period from 2000 to 2011. The analysis was done using correlation of yearly cargo flows and the spatial relations of major export directions, by historic and modern economic tendencies of the industry. Results give a picture of modern trends in export market geography and its changes during the first decade of the new century that is the ongoing transformation of East-oriented processed goods market into diverse one, which in future will largely depend on Western countries.

The aim of this research is to evaluate the spatial differences of the agricultural economy of Latvia during the First Republic by using spatial autocorrelation calculations. Morans’s I coefficient of spatial autocorrelation is used to describe the spatial relations of the analyzed indicators. The obtained results show that Moran’s I for more than half of the obtained parameters is greater than 0.5, which indicates a rather high spatial autocorrelation. It was observed that variations of the spatial autocorrelation values can be explained by what affects these parameters. Spatial autocorrelation is significantly higher for those parameters whose value depends mainly on the variety of natural factors (land use, specific crop share). Moran’s I value for those parameters whose values depend on the actions by the local government in rural parishes is considerably lower (for example, budget allocation, etc.) A large portion of the examined parameters characterizing the level of parish economic development show the biggest differences when comparing Latgale with the rest of Latvia. In the case of such regional differences, Moran’s I is usually within 0.5–0.7, indicating moderately close spatial autocorrelation. For many indicators regarding agriculture and land use many southern parishes within Jelgavas and Bauskas county show a very considerable difference from the rest of Latvia showing much higher rate of agricultural production.

A study was undertaken to understand local knowledge and practices of communities in animal management as a step in designing and implementation of communitybased breeding programs for four local breeds (Afar, Bonga, Horro and Menz) in four sites in Ethiopia. Workshops were held with the project communities to learn their animal management practices, among others the selection of rams and ewes, ram sharing and grazing management. Breeding management skills were studied by conducting heritability and genetic correlation exercises. The most important animal traits for the different production systems were identified from a systems study. Phenotypic, production, and reproduction traits were used either in the form of drawings or verbal explanations. Pairwise combinations of the traits were presented to the communities to express their choices via voting. For evaluating heritability, the communities were asked which trait pair is relatively more heritable than the other. For the correlation exercise, the communities were asked to estimate the magnitude (high, low, and none) of relationship between the traits in each pair. The results indicate that farmers and pastoralists have good skills in sheep management. Although the mating system is generally uncontrolled, the farmers have a tradition of exchanging of rams. All farmers/pastoralists exercise ewe and ram selection based on phenotypic appearance and recalled pedigree. Their knowledge on heritability of traits and genetic correlations between traits more or less concurs with scientific evidence in literature. For example, qualitative traits (like colour) were judged highly heritable followed by production traits. Knowledge of correlations is used for indirect selection when the target traits are either impossible to assess on the live animal or are sexlimited. Indigenous knowledge and existing practices in the communities, developed through years of practical experience, provide an excellent basis for designing sheep breeding programs.

Le Sahara algérien, réputé par son extrême aridité, avec ses faibles disponibilités en eau et en pâturage, présente des formations géomorphologiques représentant les différents types de parcours qui offrent la seule ressource d'aliment disponible pour le dromadaire. La présence d'animaux au comportement agressif (ovins, caprins, bovins) accentue la situation perturbée de ces parcours, contrairement au dromadaire qui contribue à l'équilibre de cet écosystème. Notre suivi sur le comportement alimentaire du dromadaire, dans le Sahara septentrional algérien, a montré que son régime alimentaire est diversifié en été et au printemps (9 et 6 espèces consommées) et se base essentiellement sur les plantes spontanées vivaces. Les espèces broutées se composent globalement de 13 espèces appartenant à 10 familles variant suivant les saisons et l'offre fourragère des parcours. Dans une station donnée, 3 espèces représentent entre 67,75 % et 100 % des quantités consommées. Une de ces espèces, le "Drinn" (Stipagrostis pungens) est consommée en toutes saisons et en proportions importantes (23 à 43 % du régime). De point de vue quantitatif, le suivi des prises alimentaires, selon la méthode du nombre de bouchées, a montré que le dromadaire pratique une alimentation ambulante, parcourant quotidiennement de 20 à 50 km et prélève de petites quantités de chaque plante, estimées en nombre de 1 à 4 coups de dents, donnant des quantités de 0,7 à 3,9 g pour chaque espèce. Les quantités de matière sèche journalières, ainsi ingérées, varient de 4,04 à 39,4 kg, donnant une moyenne estimée de 2,7 à 3,4 kg MS/ 100 kg de PV/jour, suivant les saisons et la composition floristique du régime. Ces résultats sont en accord avec le comportement alimentaire spécifique du dromadaire qui lui permet d'être la seule espèce capable de mieux utiliser son écosystème hyper-aride et bien adaptée aux conditions désertiques. (Résumé d'auteur)

Working horses are still an important source of income for many families located in urban and peri-urban settings. An adequate health state in these horses is a prerequisite for welfare and work output, this is why the aim of the present study was: i) review the main systemic health problems; ii) describe their morphological characteristics; and iii) classify the drugs used in urban draught horses between 1997 and 2009. Morphological and health information was compiled for 263 horses from a total of 1132 clinical records between 1997 and 2009 by the free healthcare service. Most horses were geldings (38.4%) followed by mares and stallions. The average age was 8.5 years and only 30.4% presented characteristics of a draught type of horse. The main health systemic problems were related to the Integumentary, Locomotor and Respiratory systems respectively, being skin lesions, lameness and nasal discharge the principal diagnosis for each system. In relation to the drugs administered, dewormers (29.9%), vitamins (29.9%) and anti-inflammatories (14.5%) are the most frequent. Continuous revision of extension programmes is necessary to re-design protocols and adopt proper management practices and optimize the use of resources in a sustainable way. The animal and health information revised in this study can be used to set up new intervention strategies based in the selection of proper horses according to the type of work, and for the incorporation of training programmes aimed towards the prevention of health problems such as skin lesions and lameness and recognition of the risks associated to the use of drugs such as anthelmintics.

peer reviewed | In Northern Vietnam, the livestock production sector has been strongly encouraged to develop by the government for many years as an important livelihood strategy to alleviate household poverty. Over the last few decades, it has been developed quickly, but remained unsustainable. This study aims to identify the dynamics of livestock production systems during the economic transformation period and their current constraints as the basic for setting up sustainable development policies. A survey, which is based on participatory and retrospective approaches, was conducted at 38 households in two communes of Hai Duong province in 2010. The results indicated a significant evolution of livestock production systems from a traditional small-scale production system into a specialized intensive one due to the land law and the rice land conversion program in 1990s and the industrialization and urbanization process in 2000s. The intensification of livestock production system, which is accompanied by the increasing dependence on imported inputs and the limited knowledge and skills in adequate techniques and disease management, poses a huge difficulty to producers in developing their livestock production systems. Therefore, the priority of development policies should be given to the promotion of the local resource utilisation as feed for animals and to the improvement of farmers’ ability to manage their production through not only government supports but also participation of social organisations and farmers.

Bhutan aims to intensify livestock production not only to improve livelihoods of farming households and to meet the increasing demands of livestock products, but also to sustainably use natural resources. This paper assesses the impact and trends of livestock intensification on the use of Common Property Resources (CPR), and how this affects the cattle numbers that can be maintained and the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows at the farm. Data on household, cropping and livestock activities were collected through interviewing 183 households in extensive, semi-intensive, intensive, and intensive peri-urban areas in the years 2000 and 2004. In the extensive and semi-intensive areas, CPR was the most important source of Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) for cattle. In the intensive areas with a majority of crossbred cattle, the farmers relied less on CPR than in the other two areas, but still about one quarter of the TDN requirements were met by grazing CPR. Grazing in the CPR provided the highest proportion of NP inputs at farm level; without grazing on CPR all four areas would have had highly negative soil nutrient balances. Intensification of livestock production through crossbreeding has not resulted in major reductions in cattle numbers per farm, but it is contributing to reduced use of CPR by farmers. Intensification partly replaces farm nutrient flows from CPR with nutrient inputs through increased use of concentrates, conserved fodder, and fertilizers. More awareness of nutrient management is required among farmers coupled with more research on nutrient assessments.

Bhutan aims to intensify livestock production not only to improve livelihoods of farming households and to meet the increasing demands of livestock products, but also to sustainably use natural resources. This paper assesses the impact and trends of livestock intensification on the use of Common Property Resources (CPR), and how this affects the cattle numbers that can be maintained and the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows at the farm. Data on household, cropping and livestock activities were collected through interviewing 183 households in extensive, semi-intensive, intensive, and intensive peri-urban areas in the years 2000 and 2004. In the extensive and semi-intensive areas, CPR was the most important source of Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) for cattle. In the intensive areas with a majority of crossbred cattle, the farmers relied less on CPR than in the other two areas, but still about one quarter of the TDN requirements were met by grazing CPR. Grazing in the CPR provided the highest proportion of NP inputs at farm level; without grazing on CPR all four areas would have had highly negative soil nutrient balances. Intensification of livestock production through crossbreeding has not resulted in major reductions in cattle numbers per farm, but it is contributing to reduced use of CPR by farmers. Intensification partly replaces farm nutrient flows from CPR with nutrient inputs through increased use of concentrates, conserved fodder, and fertilizers. More awareness of nutrient management is required among farmers coupled with more research on nutrient assessments.

An experiment was conducted on station, using a nested design in order to evaluate the effects of a Urea Molasses Multi-Nutrient Block (UMMB) supplementation of typical dry season, roughage based diets on the performance of mid lactating local Fogera and their F1 Holstein Friesian crosses in Ethiopia. Eight cows each from both breeds were assigned to a forage-based control diet and an experimental diet with UMMB supplementation. Highly significant differences were observed between treatments for most production traits. However, Fogera and crossbred dairy cows showed a different response pattern for some traits. Crossbred dairy cows were superior over Fogera for milk production, reproductive performance and benefit-cost ratio regardless of UMMB supplementation. Conversely, Fogera cows had higher milk solid contents and supplementing them with UMMB had a greater effect on milk fat than in crossbred cows. It is concluded that supplementing dairy cows with UMMB during the dry season is basically a helpful measure to maintain production. Depending on the availability of UMMB, priority in supplementation however, should be given to cows with a high genetic potential for milk production.