Effects of oxidation degree on photo-transformation and the resulting toxicity of graphene oxide in aqueous environment

Graphene oxide (GO) has been demonstrated to be key component for diverse applications. However, their potential environmental reactivity, fate and risk have not been fully evaluated to date. In this study, we investigated the photochemical reactivity of four types of GO with different oxidation degrees in aqueous environment, and their related toxicity to two bacterial models Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) was further compared. After UV-irradiation, a large amount of oxygen functional groups on GO were reduced and the electronic conjugations within GO were restored as indicated by UV–visible absorption spectra, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy analysis. Moreover, the higher the oxidation degree of the pristine GO was, the more obvious of the photo-transformation changes were. In order to further reveal the photochemical reactivity mechanisms, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation of GO was monitored. The quantity of ROS including singlet oxygen (1O2), superoxide anions (O2·-), and hydroxyl radicals (·OH) increased with increasing oxidation degree of GO, which was in accordance with the previous characterization results. Scanning electron microscopy and cell growth analyses of E. coli and S. aureus showed that the photochemical transformation enhanced the toxicity of GO, which might be due to an increase in functional group density. The higher conductivity of the reduced graphene oxide (RGO) was responsible for its stronger toxicity than GO through membrane damage and oxidative stress to bacteria. This study revealed that the oxidation degrees play important roles in photochemical transformation and the resulting toxicity of GO, which is helpful for understanding the environmental behaviors and risks of GO in aquatic environments.