Natural resource dependence, livelihoods and development: perceptions from Kiunga, Kenya.

Numerous marine resource management initiatives have been implemented in East Africa over the last 15 years. However, success has been limited if poverty and natural resource health are used as indicators, although the capacity to manage marine resources has improved. This study seeks to map coastal peoples’ perceptions of marine resource use and their dependence on these resources, changes in resource status, and what effect conservation and natural resource management have had on coastal peoples’ socioeconomic development, in order to understand the bottlenecks to good governance of common pool marine resources. The Kiunga area in northern Kenya and the Tanga area in northern Tanzania were selected for case study analysis due to considerable conservation and management intervention in these areas over time. The findings of the Kiunga case study are presented herein. The objectives of the study were to compile existing information on the link between coastal peoples’ livelihoods and marine resource management in Kiunga, with a particular focus on fisheries; and to analyse past work on livelihood enhancement and associated capacity building, empowerment and participatory approaches to marine resource management. Special attention was paid to the semi-commercial invertebrate fisheries associated with this area, particularly lobster and crab, as well as shark, mollusc and sea cucumber fisheries. Attention was also paid to the level and extent of involvement of the local community in the management of their marine resources. Information was obtained through literature research; meetings with resource managers and government officials; and a combination of focus group discussions and key informant interviews in the villages in Kiunga Marine National Reserve (KMNR). Management and conservation interventions by several institutions in KMNR have had a positive impact on the lives of the people living in the Kiunga area, primarily through providing health, education and transport services. However, the socio-economic status of the people has improved little. Also, development of the region does not appear to have changed significantly since the 1980s, especially in terms of infrastructure: the road is still a sand track, there is no public vehicle service and telecommunication north of Mkokoni village is non-existent. With little development in the area the people living in KMNR are still highly dependent on fishing for their livelihoods - 95-100% dependency in terms of income was recorded in this study. However, fisher catch rates and earnings are declining as human population numbers increase and greater pressure is put on marine resources. Co-management initiatives are a relatively recent introduction and are yet to reap tangible benefits in terms of improved fisheries management and improved livelihoods. The area sustains important and valuable fisheries such as the lobster and mangrove crab fisheries. With better management and effort reduction these fisheries could be sustainable and productive in the long term. This would ensure the fisheries bring an important source of income to the region as well as maintain a traditional form of livelihood. Considering the high levels of poverty and dependence on natural resources, alternative income-generating activities (AIG) now need to be vigorously pursued. The area has enormous wealth in terms of a very high aesthetic value due to minimal development and high biodiversity, and community based eco-tourism presents an opportunity. Mariculture development is also being explored. However, a number of bottlenecks exist which, if addressed, would help create an enabling environment for livelihood enhancement and development. For example, this study found that the local communities in Kiunga Marine National Reserve view conservation efforts as somewhat separate to their primary livelihoods of fisheries and not directly benefiting them, except through side programmes such as education and health. More direct involvement and empowerment of communities is needed to address this, although ultimately it is tangible benefits stemming from conservation activities and accruing directly to communities that will ensure buy-in. An essential step in this process is the establishment of Beach Management Units that are anchored in the communities while enjoying the trust of the authorities, structured in such a way that they cover areas that are sufficiently large and reflective of traditional fishing practices in the area. There is a risk of conservation successes already achieved becoming undone, further undermining resource management initiatives. Programmes in the area have created wide support for conservation of marine turtles, and local poaching has been significantly reduced, but mechanized, mainly foreign, fishing vessels illegally fishing near shore (within 12nm) are implicated in incidental turtle by-catch and mortality as well as habitat destruction. Communities identify this as one of the main drivers of resource degradation, and have repeatedly asked authorities and conservation agencies for assistance in tackling this problem, which is beyond their capacity to address. Intervention in the form of more coherent enforcement of regulations, more clear progress on natural resource management, as well as an increased focus on empowering and involving communities in these, are all urgently needed. The unique natural and cultural characteristics of the area will remain its greatest opportunity for socioeconomic development in the foreseeable future. In order to make possible local development that benefits all people in the area without compromising resource sustainability, the area must become more closely connected to outside markets, for sale of products such as from fisheries or local manufacturing, for attracting tourists and development capital, and for providing opportunities to build capacity and increase livelihoods development and specialization. This could e.g. allow taking a cautious approach to development, targeting specific niche markets such as high-end, low impact tourism, or sustainably farmed seafood, but must be coupled with sound planning and management. Lastly, continued commitment to improved education in the area and empowerment of people to participate in and indeed become drivers of conservation as well as development are fundamental to sustainable development in the long term.

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