Monitoring Mangrove Phenology Based on Gap Filling and Spatiotemporal Fusion: An Optimized Mangrove Phenology Extraction Approach (OMPEA)

Monitoring mangrove phenology requires frequent, high-resolution remote sensing data, yet satellite imagery often suffers from coarse resolution and cloud interference. Traditional methods, such as denoising and spatiotemporal fusion, faced limitations: denoising algorithms usually enhance temporal resolution without improving spatial quality, while spatiotemporal fusion models struggle with prolonged data gaps and heavy noise. This study proposes an optimized mangrove phenology extraction approach (OMPEA), which integrates Landsat and MODIS data with a denoising algorithm (e.g., Gap Filling and Savitzky&ndash:Golay filtering, GF&ndash:SG) and a spatiotemporal fusion model (e.g., Enhanced Spatial and Temporal Adaptive Reflectance Fusion Model, ESTARFM). The key of OMPEA is that GF&ndash:SG algorithm filled data gaps from cloud cover and satellite transit gaps, providing high-quality input to ESTARFM and improving its accuracy of NDVI imagery reconstruction in mangrove phenology extraction. By conducting experiments on the GEE platform, OMPEA generates 1-day, 30 m NDVI imagery, from which phenological parameters (i.e., the start (SoS), end (EoS), length (LoS), and peak (PoS) of the growing season) are derived using the maximum separation (MS) method. Validation in four mangrove areas along the coastal China shows that OMPEA significantly improves the potential to capture mangrove phenology in the presence of incomplete data. The OMPEA significantly increased usable data, adding 7&ndash:33 Landsat images and 318&ndash:415 MODIS images per region. The generated NDVI series exhibits strong spatiotemporal consistency with original data (R2: 0.788&ndash:0.998, RMSE: 0.007&ndash:0.253) and revealed earlier SoS and longer LoS at lower latitudes. Cross-correlation analysis showed a 2&ndash:3 month lagged effects of temperature on mangroves&rsquo: growth, with precipitation having minimal impact. The proposed OMPEA improves the possibility of capturing mangrove phenology under non-continuous and low-resolution data, providing valuable insights for large-scale and long-term mangrove conservation and management.