Lethal, sublethal and transgenerational effects of insecticides labeled for cotton on immature Trichogramma pretiosum

The parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is often released to manage lepidopteran pests in cotton crops. However, growers rely on multiple insecticide applications to manage cotton pests. A harmonious integration of control tactics is required for proper pest management, and the use of selective insecticides (i.e., those promoting effective pest control while causing little impact on natural enemies) fits within this scope. This study aimed to assess the lethal, sublethal and transgenerational effects of insecticides from varying chemical groups on T. pretiosum. The insecticides were sprayed on parasitized host [Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller), Lepidoptera: Pyralidae] eggs with developing T. pretiosum stages (egg-larva, prepupa, and pupa), and biological traits were assessed following adult emergence. Overall, pupae were more susceptible to insecticides. We found thiodicarb and chlorfenapyr to reduce F0 adult emergence in rates comparable to the positive control (methomyl). Adult F0 deformation was the highest on flupyradifurone-treated organisms, and both the F0 parasitism rate and female survival were reduced by the insecticides (except for teflubenzuron). The sex ratio (proportion female) was affected by thiodicarb and flupyradifurone. Transgenerational effects occurred on adult emergence, which was reduced on the offspring (F1) of thiodicarb, chlorfenapyr, and flupyradifurone treated T. pretiosum. In addition, thiodicarb decreased the F1 sex ratio (≤ 0.33) compared to the other compounds (sex ratio ≥ 0.45). These results indicate that teflubenzuron is the safest insecticide; the other insecticides are non-selective to T. pretiosum. Field and semifield studies are required to confirm the harmfulness of chlorfenapyr, flupyradifurone and thiodicarb toward T. pretiosum.