Introduction: Chlamydia psittaci is a gram-negative obligate intracellular pathogen of birds. Poultry infections lead to economic losses and can be transmitted to humans. No vaccine is available and the bacterium-host cell interaction is not completely understood. Replicating bacteria cause pneumonia, but C. psittaci can also be non-replicating and persistent inside the cytoplasm of avian cells. RT-qPCR provides insight into the molecular pathogenesis of both active replicating and persistent Chlamydia psittaci in birds, but requires identification of stably expressed reference genes to avoid biases. Material and Methods: We investigated the expression stability of 10 C. psittaci candidate reference genes for gene expression analysis during normal growth and penicillin-induced persistence. C. psittaci Cal10 was cultured in HeLa229 and RNA was extracted. The expression level of each candidate was examined by RT-qPCR and Cq values were analysed using geNorm. Results: The genes tyrS, gidA, radA, and 16S rRNA ranked among the most stably expressed. The final selected reference genes differed according to the bacterial growth status (normal growth versus persistent status), and the time points selected during the duration of the normal chlamydial developmental cycle. Conclusion: The study data show the importance of systematic validation of reference genes to confirm their stability within the strains and under the conditions selected.

Genus-, subspecies-, and serotype 1-specific antigens of Chlamydia psittaci were characterized by immunoblot analysis, using monoclonal antibodies that recognize 2 C psittaci strains: AB7 isolated from an ewe that had aborted, and iB1 isolated from feces of a healthy ewe. Genus-specific epitopes were detected on lipopolysaccharide, on a 47-kd protein, and on a 27- to 30-kd doublet. Subspecies-specific epitopes were located on a 30-kd protein, and a 80- to 90-kd protein region was identified, which bore subspecies- and serotype 1-specific epitopes. These 80- to 90-kd proteins were highly reactive with serum from ewes that had aborted and could be a useful antigen for diagnosis of chlamydial induced abortion of ruminants.

Monoclonal antibodies were prepared against 40- and 56- to 64-kd antigens of Chlamydia pecorum strain Maeda, which was isolated from a cow with pneumonia. Using the monoclonal antibodies, 5 strains of C pecorum, 25 strains of mammalian and 19 strains of avian C psittaci, 1 strain of C pneumoniae, and 3 strains of C trachomatis were analyzed for immunologic reactivity by use of the indirect immunofluorescent test. Monoclonal antibody analysis revealed immunologic relatedness between C pecorum and mammalian strains of C psittaci, which were completely differentiated from the other avian strains. Bovine strains were distinguished from ovine strains. Antigenic diversity mm observed for bovine and ovine strains. Feline- and guinea pig-derived strains were shown to be immunologically different from bovine and ovine strains. Results provide the basis for typing and epidemiologic study of bovine and ovine strains of C pecorum and C psittaci.

Chlamydia psittaci proteins capable of binding eukaryotic cell membranes were identified and antigenically characterized. Cell membrane proteins (CMP) of noninfected cells were labeled with biotin (B-CMP), then were extracted with 1% Triton X-100. Nitrocellulose membrane strips containing sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis-resolved proteins of chlamydial elementary bodies (EB) were reacted with the B-CMP extract, followed by addition of streptavidin-conjugated horse radish peroxidase. Among the various strains of chlamydiae examined, a protein of approximately 16 to 18 kDa consistently bound B-CMP. A second larger protein, ranging in molecular mass from 24 to 32 kDa, also bound B-CMP. Immunoblotting techniques were used to analyze the reactions of antisera from immunized and experimentally infected animals to these proteins. A rabbit polyclonal antiserum produced against the 18-kDa adhesin of a serovar-1 strain of C psittaci (B577) reacted strongly with 18-kDa proteins of aH C psittaci strains, but weakly with that of C trachomatis. Mouse antisera raised against the serovar-2 (FCc-Stra) 28-kDa protein reacted only with proteins of the homologous serovar. Sera from experimentally infected animals did not react with the C trachomatis 18-kDa adhesion protein, but did react in 2 patterns with related and nonrelated C psittaci isolates. Two rabbits inoculated with infective serovar-1 EB and 1 rabbit inoculated with a serovar-2 strain reacted specifically with the 18-kDa proteins of their homologous serovars. In contrast, 2 other rabbits inoculated with the same serovar-2 strain produced antisera that reacted with all C psittaci 18-kDa proteins, as did serum from a similarly inoculated buff. The reason for the 2 types of responses to infection remains to be determined.

Avian chlamydiosis is caused by Chlamydophila psittaci and considered as one of an important zoonotic disease throughout the world. Among more than 400 avian species including poultry and pet birds susceptible to the disease, psittacine birds were known to be mostly susceptible hosts. In Korea, no outbreak of the disease and genetic analysis of the agent in poultry and pet birds have been reported. With histopathological findings and genetic identification of a causative agent, avian chlamydiosis was identified in parrots submitted from the same pet bird farm in 2006 and 2009 for the diagnosis. Based on genetic sequences and phylogenetic analysis of ompA gene, the two isolates of Chlamydophila psittaci showed 100% of genetic similarity and belonged to genotype A, suggesting that the same agent might be continuously circulated in the farm. This result indicates that serological survey of the disease in pet bird farms and impact of the disease on significance in public health may be further studied.