Objective: This study was conducted to assess hygienic cow milk handling practices of milk producers, traders (informal collectors, transporters and vendors) and consumers across the milk supply chain in the Eastern Ethiopia.Materials and methods: A total of 160 milk producers in Babile district were selected using multistage stratified sampling technique. Moreover,  a total of 54 milk collectors and transporters (5, 40, 9 from Jigjiga, Harar and Dire Dawa town, respectively), 152 vendors (40 from Bable, Harar and Dire Dawa town and 32 from Jigjiga town) and 160 consumers (40 from each town) were selected using snowball sampling technique. Data from the selected actors were collected using focus group discussion, questionnaire survey and observations.Results: The study revealed that the majority of milk handling operations in the study area is carried out by females. The majority of respondent milk producers (87.5-92.5%), collectors and transporters (88.9-100%), vendors (77.5-90.7%) and some consumers (37.5-47.5%) performing milk handling operations were illiterate. Most of the observed actors in the study area perform malpractices (such as failure to stop milk handling while showing disease symptoms, improper hand washing and handling of risk factors) while working with milk. Majority of respondent milk producers (87.5-97.5%), all traders and some consumers (12.5-32.5%) use plastic containers for milk handling. Milk handling equipments were commonly washed using warm water, detergent and sand; however, in most case they were not properly protected from risk factors after washing. Majority of respondent milk producers (55-65%), collectors and transporters (60-66.7%), and some vendors (0-50%) and consumers (0-55%) use water from non-tap sources for hygienic practices.Conclusion: In general; the findings indicated that milk handling practices performed across the supply chain in the study area were unhygienic and therefore suggested the need for improving hygienic practices.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c139

Objective: This study was conducted to assess hygienic cow milk handling practices of milk producers, traders (informal collectors, transporters and vendors) and consumers across the milk supply chain in the Eastern Ethiopia. Materials and methods: A total of 160 milk producers in Babile district were selected using multistage stratified sampling technique. Moreover, a total of 54 milk collectors and transporters (5, 40, 9 from Jigjiga, Harar and Dire Dawa town, respectively), 152 vendors (40 from Bable, Harar and Dire Dawa town and 32 from Jigjiga town) and 160 consumers (40 from each town) were selected using snowball sampling technique. Data from the selected actors were collected using focus group discussion, questionnaire survey and observations. Results: The study revealed that the majority of milk handling operations in the study area is carried out by females. The majority of respondent milk producers (87.5-92.5%), collectors and transporters (88.9-100%), vendors (77.5-90.7%) and some consumers (37.5-47.5%) performing milk handling operations were illiterate. Most of the observed actors in the study area perform malpractices (such as failure to stop milk handling while showing disease symptoms, improper hand washing and handling of risk factors) while working with milk. Majority of respondent milk producers (87.5-97.5%), all traders and some consumers (12.5-32.5%) use plastic containers for milk handling. Milk handling equipments were commonly washed using warm water, detergent and sand; however, in most case they were not properly protected from risk factors after washing. Majority of respondent milk producers (55-65%), collectors and transporters (60-66.7%), and some vendors (0-50%) and consumers (0-55%) use water from non-tap sources for hygienic practices. Conclusion: In general; the findings indicated that milk handling practices performed across the supply chain in the study area were unhygienic and therefore suggested the need for improving hygienic practices. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(2.000): 112-126]

Objective: The study was undertaken with an objective to determine the seroprevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats of different age groups.Materials and methods: A total of 606 goats (414 vaccinated and 192 unvaccinated) were randomly selected from Rajshahi, Sirajganj and Gazipur districts. The goats were categorized into different age gropus; (i) 0-6 months, (ii) 12-24 months, and (iii) >24 months. Blood samples were collected from the goats and sera were prepared. The sera were examined for the presence of antibodies against PPR virus (PPRV) by competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA).Results: In the unvaccinated goats, overall seroprevalence was 8.70% (n=36/414). The highest seroprevalence was recorded in Rajshahi (28.57%; n=18/63) which was followed by Gazipur (16%; n=12/75) and Sirajganj (2.17%; n=6/276). The age-based overall seroprevalence in the unvaccinated samples from 0-6 months age group was 9.43% (n=15/159). Similarly, 12-24 and >24 months age groups of goats revealed the presence of 6% (n=9/150) and 11.43% (n=12/105) seroprevalence against PPRV. Of the vaccinated samples, overall 76.04% (n=146/192) were seropositive against PPRV. Within the age group of 0-6 months, vaccinated samples had the highest seroprevalence (80.25%; n=65/81) as compared to 12-24 (70.83%; n=34/48) and >24 months (74.60%; n=47/63) age groups of goats, respectively.Conclusion: The seroprevalence in the unvaccinated samples indicates that PPRV is circulating in Bangladesh which is inducing to produce natural antibody in goats. This study also states that the field level vaccination against PPRV could give protection to the goats.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c140

Objective: The study was undertaken with an objective to determine the seroprevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats of different age groups. Materials and methods: A total of 606 goats (414 vaccinated and 192 unvaccinated) were randomly selected from Rajshahi, Sirajganj and Gazipur districts. The goats were categorized into different age gropus; (i) 0-6 months, (ii) 12-24 months, and (iii) >24 months. Blood samples were collected from the goats and sera were prepared. The sera were examined for the presence of antibodies against PPR virus (PPRV) by competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA). Results: In the unvaccinated goats, overall seroprevalence was 8.70% (n=36/414). The highest seroprevalence was recorded in Rajshahi (28.57%; n=18/63) which was followed by Gazipur (16%; n=12/75) and Sirajganj (2.17%; n=6/276). The age-based overall seroprevalence in the unvaccinated samples from 0-6 months age group was 9.43% (n=15/159). Similarly, 12-24 and >24 months age groups of goats revealed the presence of 6% (n=9/150) and 11.43% (n=12/105) seroprevalence against PPRV. Of the vaccinated samples, overall 76.04% (n=146/192) were seropositive against PPRV. Within the age group of 0-6 months, vaccinated samples had the highest seroprevalence (80.25%; n=65/81) as compared to 12-24 (70.83%; n=34/48) and >24 months (74.60%; n=47/63) age groups of goats, respectively. Conclusion: The seroprevalence in the unvaccinated samples indicates that PPRV is circulating in Bangladesh which is inducing to produce natural antibody in goats. This study also states that the field level vaccination against PPRV could give protection to the goats. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(2.000): 127-133]

Objective: The objectives of this study was to investigate phenotypically the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin Resistance S. aureus (MRSA) in ruminants and animal handlers in Maiduguri, Nigeria. Materials and methods: A total of 937 samples (900 nasal and skin swabs of cattle and 37 humans samples) were collected in Maiduguri metropolis. The samples were inoculated onto mannitol salt agar (MSA) and blood agar, and the cultrue plates were incubated at 37oC for 24 h. The S. aureus colonies showing golden yellow color on MSA were primarily identified as S. aureus, which were then subjected for catalase and coagulase tests. All S. aureus were finally screened for the presence of MRSA on oxalate resistant screening agar (ORSAB) medium. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the MRSA were measured by disc diffusion method.Results: The overall prevalence of S. aureus was 44.3% (n=414/937). The MRSA could be detected in 12.1% (n=113/937) samples. Considerign different species, S. aureus could be isolated from 137 (45.6%), 148 (49.3%) and 119 (39.7%), 11 (29.7%) cattle, sheep, goat and humans, respectively. In ruminants, 27.7% (n-83/300) bulls were positive for S. aureus. Similarly, 10.7% (n=32/300) and 22.3% (n=67/300) were positive for S. aureus in rams and bucks, respectively. On the other hand, 18% (n=54/300), 38.7% (n=116/300) and 17.3% (n=52/300) samples from cows, ewes and does were positive for S. aureus. The highest MRSA could be isolated from ewes (9.3%; n=28/300) follwed by bulls (7%; n=21/300) and bucks (6.7%; n=20/300). In humans, 13.5% (n=5/37) samples were positive for MRSA.Conclusion: S. aureus and MRSA infections in ruminants and animal handlers are documented in this study. The MRSA may exert public health threat to humans.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c145

Objective: The objectives of this study was to investigate phenotypically the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin Resistance S. aureus (MRSA) in ruminants and animal handlers in Maiduguri, Nigeria. Materials and methods: A total of 937 samples (900 nasal and skin swabs of cattle and 37 humans samples) were collected in Maiduguri metropolis. The samples were inoculated onto mannitol salt agar (MSA) and blood agar, and the cultrue plates were incubated at 37oC for 24 h. The S. aureus colonies showing golden yellow color on MSA were primarily identified as S. aureus, which were then subjected for catalase and coagulase tests. All S. aureus were finally screened for the presence of MRSA on oxalate resistant screening agar (ORSAB) medium. Antimicrobial susceptibility of the MRSA were measured by disc diffusion method. Results: The overall prevalence of S. aureus was 44.3% (n=414/937). The MRSA could be detected in 12.1% (n=113/937) samples. Considerign different species, S. aureus could be isolated from 137 (45.6%), 148 (49.3%) and 119 (39.7%), 11 (29.7%) cattle, sheep, goat and humans, respectively. In ruminants, 27.7% (n-83/300) bulls were positive for S. aureus. Similarly, 10.7% (n=32/300) and 22.3% (n=67/300) were positive for S. aureus in rams and bucks, respectively. On the other hand, 18% (n=54/300), 38.7% (n=116/300) and 17.3% (n=52/300) samples from cows, ewes and does were positive for S. aureus. The highest MRSA could be isolated from ewes (9.3%; n=28/300) follwed by bulls (7%; n=21/300) and bucks (6.7%; n=20/300). In humans, 13.5% (n=5/37) samples were positive for MRSA. Conclusion: S. aureus and MRSA infections in ruminants and animal handlers are documented in this study. The MRSA may exert public health threat to humans. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(2.000): 152-159]

Objective: The study was conducted to determine the effect of parity of female goat, social ranking and ovulatory responses of does during seasonal anestrus period by exposure to male effect.Materials and methods: The study was conducted on a flock of Baladi goats at the animal farm of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University during November 2014 to January 2015. A total of 54 healthy Baladi goats comprising of 4 males and 50 females aging 12-18 months were used for this study. The goats were raised under indoor raising system, and were released to graze during daylight hours and returned to closed shed. The animals were fed dehydrated alfalfa granules and mixed fodder. The goats were given water ad libitum. Sexual behavioral patterns of both male and female goats were observed. During estrus behavioral resposes shown by the does, blood samples were collected from the goats for the examination of luteinizing hormone (LH). Results: The mounting activity were higher in males in contact with multiparouse females than those of nulliparouse ones. The sexually experienced does induce the activation of L.H hormones leading to stimulation of estrus responses of does. That's why social ranking of does had a significant effect on sexual behavior of bucks when exposed to does during anestrus period. LH hormones secretion in 2nd week in female exposure to males was higher than those of 1st week of exposure at both multiparous and nulliparous females.Conclusion: It concluded that visual, alfactactory, auditory contact with the male stimulate estrus response of anestrus females to be sexually responsive resulting in an increase in the economic gain of goat farm.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c146

Objective: The study was conducted to determine the effect of parity of female goat, social ranking and ovulatory responses of does during seasonal anestrus period by exposure to male effect. Materials and methods: The study was conducted on a flock of Baladi goats at the animal farm of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University during November 2014 to January 2015. A total of 54 healthy Baladi goats comprising of 4 males and 50 females aging 12-18 months were used for this study. The goats were raised under indoor raising system, and were released to graze during daylight hours and returned to closed shed. The animals were fed dehydrated alfalfa granules and mixed fodder. The goats were given water ad libitum. Sexual behavioral patterns of both male and female goats were observed. During estrus behavioral resposes shown by the does, blood samples were collected from the goats for the examination of luteinizing hormone (LH). Results: The mounting activity were higher in males in contact with multiparouse females than those of nulliparouse ones. The sexually experienced does induce the activation of L.H hormones leading to stimulation of estrus responses of does. Thats why social ranking of does had a significant effect on sexual behavior of bucks when exposed to does during anestrus period. LH hormones secretion in 2nd week in female exposure to males was higher than those of 1st week of exposure at both multiparous and nulliparous females. Conclusion: It concluded that visual, alfactactory, auditory contact with the male stimulate estrus response of anestrus females to be sexually responsive resulting in an increase in the economic gain of goat farm. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(2.000): 160-165]

Objective: This study was planned to assess the distribution of yeasts and moulds in different types of cheese, and to study the effect of natamycin on their survival during manufacture of Feta cheese and its storage.Materials and methods: A total of 150 samples of local manufactured cheese were collected randomly from markets of Qena city in Egypt which were subjected for mycological examination by traditional microbiological examinations. The effects of different concentrations of natamycin on survival of yeasts and moulds in Feta cheese at room temperature, refrigeration condition, and pH values were evaluated.Results: Highest yeasts and moulds contaminations were recorded in Kareish cheese with a mean value of 2.40x106±9.72x105 and 4.64x102±1.18x102, respectively. The isolated moulds were mostly Cladosporium, Penicillium and Aspergillus, while yeast genera were species of Candida and Debaryomyces hansenii. Yeasts and moulds could not be detected after 24 h, and after curd in Feta cheese samples containing natamycin (at 0.2% or 0.4%) when the cheese samples were stored either at room or refrigeration temperature. Gradual decrease of pH value was also recorded in the cheese.Conclusion: Natamycin has strong antifungal activity and can extend cheese shelf-life during storage period.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c152

Objective: This study was planned to assess the distribution of yeasts and moulds in different types of cheese, and to study the effect of natamycin on their survival during manufacture of Feta cheese and its storage. Materials and methods: A total of 150 samples of local manufactured cheese were collected randomly from markets of Qena city in Egypt which were subjected for mycological examination by traditional microbiological examinations. The effects of different concentrations of natamycin on survival of yeasts and moulds in Feta cheese at room temperature, refrigeration condition, and pH values were evaluated. Results: Highest yeasts and moulds contaminations were recorded in Kareish cheese with a mean value of 2.40x106+/-9.72x105 and 4.64x102+/-1.18x102, respectively. The isolated moulds were mostly Cladosporium, Penicillium and Aspergillus, while yeast genera were species of Candida and Debaryomyces hansenii. Yeasts and moulds could not be detected after 24 h, and after curd in Feta cheese samples containing natamycin (at 0.2% or 0.4%) when the cheese samples were stored either at room or refrigeration temperature. Gradual decrease of pH value was also recorded in the cheese. Conclusion: Natamycin has strong antifungal activity and can extend cheese shelf-life during storage period. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(3.000): 214-220]

Objective: The study was conducted to estimate the proportionate prevalence of dog bite in cattle, goats and dog at selected veterinary hospitals in Bangladesh and India, and to assess the farmers’ knowledge level about dog bite and rabies in general.Materials and methods: A 4-month prospective study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of dog bite in different species at selected veterinary hospitals in Bangladesh and India during January to July 2015. A total of 119 dog bite cases were identified by anamnesis, manifesting signs and clinical and physical examinations. Information about site of bite, duration, bite management, vaccination history, rabid dog, breed, age, sex and knowledge about rabies were composed by extensive cross-questioning to the farmers using pre-structured questionnaire.Results: The proportionate prevalence was found higher in goats (25.7%) irrespective of study placements. Hind leg (28-50%) and hind quarter (13-34%) of all species were found as the most vulnerable body part for dog bite. Younger (8-26%) and female (6-36%) animals were more prone to attack by dog. About 65% farmers had preliminary knowledge about rabies and they were aware about high fatality rate of this disease. Most of the respondents (about 45%) said that they did not know about how many days required to occur rabies after the animal being bitten by a rabid dog. Around 70% people had knowledge about source of rabies vaccine, and 74% people thought that the Government Veterinary Hospital was the main source of post exposure rabies vaccine. After dog biting, out of 119, 106 victims were recovered as a result of proper washing and dressing of biting site, and administration of post exposure rabies vaccine.Conclusion: Dog bite was higher in younger and female animals as compared to males and adult animals with an exception in case of dog.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c167

Objective: The study was conducted to estimate the proportionate prevalence of dog bite in cattle, goats and dog at selected veterinary hospitals in Bangladesh and India, and to assess the farmers' knowledge level about dog bite and rabies in general. Materials and methods: A 4-month prospective study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of dog bite in different species at selected veterinary hospitals in Bangladesh and India during January to July 2015. A total of 119 dog bite cases were identified by anamnesis, manifesting signs and clinical and physical examinations. Information about site of bite, duration, bite management, vaccination history, rabid dog, breed, age, sex and knowledge about rabies were composed by extensive cross-questioning to the farmers using pre-structured questionnaire. Results: The proportionate prevalence was found higher in goats (25.7%) irrespective of study placements. Hind leg (28-50%) and hind quarter (13-34%) of all species were found as the most vulnerable body part for dog bite. Younger (8-26%) and female (6-36%) animals were more prone to attack by dog. About 65% farmers had preliminary knowledge about rabies and they were aware about high fatality rate of this disease. Most of the respondents (about 45%) said that they did not know about how many days required to occur rabies after the animal being bitten by a rabid dog. Around 70% people had knowledge about source of rabies vaccine, and 74% people thought that the Government Veterinary Hospital was the main source of post exposure rabies vaccine. After dog biting, out of 119, 106 victims were recovered as a result of proper washing and dressing of biting site, and administration of post exposure rabies vaccine. Conclusion: Dog bite was higher in younger and female animals as compared to males and adult animals with an exception in case of dog. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(3.000): 252-258]

Objectives: To assess the efficacy of tube cystotomy along with medical dissolution of calaculi as a sole strategy for correction of obstructive urolithiasis in young ruminants.Materials and methods: Young bull calves (n=24; 10 Ongole claves and 14 Murrah buffalo calves) suffering from complete/partial urinary retention aging between 1 to 6 months were treated by tube cystotomy along with oral administration of ammonium chloride dosed at 10 gm/Kg body weight (bwt) orally for 15 days, streptopencillin dosed at 100 mg/10 Kg bwt through intramuscular (im) route for 5 days, and meloxicam dosed at 0.2 mg/Kg bwt through im route for 3 days.Results: Total 23 (95.83%) out of 24 calves started passing urine normally through the natural orifice 10-15 days postoperatively. None of the recovered animals (n=23) exhibited recurrence of symptoms, establishing the superiority of the technique in resolving the condition.Conclusion: Tube cystotomy, when performed at an early stage can prevent mortality of calves due to cystorrhexis, uroperitoneum and consequent uremia. This can avoid the painful and most tedious cysto-urethrotomy in young ruminants.http://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2016.c142

Objectives: To assess the efficacy of tube cystotomy along with medical dissolution of calaculi as a sole strategy for correction of obstructive urolithiasis in young ruminants. Materials and methods: Young bull calves (n=24; 10 Ongole claves and 14 Murrah buffalo calves) suffering from complete/partial urinary retention aging between 1 to 6 months were treated by tube cystotomy along with oral administration of ammonium chloride dosed at 10 gm/Kg body weight (bwt) orally for 15 days, streptopencillin dosed at 100 mg/10 Kg bwt through intramuscular (im) route for 5 days, and meloxicam dosed at 0.2 mg/Kg bwt through im route for 3 days. Results: Total 23 (95.83%) out of 24 calves started passing urine normally through the natural orifice 10-15 days postoperatively. None of the recovered animals (n=23) exhibited recurrence of symptoms, establishing the superiority of the technique in resolving the condition. Conclusion: Tube cystotomy, when performed at an early stage can prevent mortality of calves due to cystorrhexis, uroperitoneum and consequent uremia. This can avoid the painful and most tedious cysto-urethrotomy in young ruminants. [J Adv Vet Anim Res 2016; 3(2.000): 188-191]

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is one of the most important threats to cattle health and production in Ethiopia. At the livestock farm of the Bako Agricultural Research Center, an outbreak of respiratory disease of cattle occurred in May 2011, and many animals were affected and died before the disease was diagnosed. Therefore, this study was designed to determine the seroprevalence of CBPP antibodies in selected districts of Western Oromia Region and to assess the potential risk factors for the occurrence of the disease. A crosssectional study was conducted from November 2013 to March 2014 in three selected districts of Western Oromia Region. A total of 386 sera were examined for the presence of specific antibodies against Mycoplasma mycoidesmycoides small colony (MmmSC), using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The risk factors that were evaluated in this study were geographical location, age, sex, breed and body condition. The overall seroprevalence in this study was 28.5%. The seroprevalence of Mycoplasma mycoidesmycoides small colony antibodies at the district level was 40.3%, 19.0% and 5.7% in Gobbu Sayyo, BakoTibbe and Horro districts, respectively. There was a statistically significant variation ( p 0.05) in the prevalence of antibodies amongst the districts. However, animal-related risk factors, such as age, sex, breed and body condition, were not significantly associated ( p 0.05) with the serological status of the animal. This study showed that the overall prevalence of CBPP in Western Oromia Zones was high. This warrants the implementation of appropriate preventive and control measures to minimise the economic losses associated with the disease.Keywords: Seroprevalence, CBPP, risk factors, c-ELISA, Western Oromia Zones, Ethiopia

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is one of the most important threats to cattle health and production in Ethiopia. At the livestock farm of the Bako Agricultural Research Center, an outbreak of respiratory disease of cattle occurred in May 2011, and many animals were affected and died before the disease was diagnosed. Therefore, this study was designed to determine the seroprevalence of CBPP antibodies in selected districts of Western Oromia Region and to assess the potential risk factors for the occurrence of the disease. A crosssectional study was conducted from November 2013 to March 2014 in three selected districts of Western Oromia Region. A total of 386 sera were examined for the presence of specific antibodies against Mycoplasma mycoidesmycoides small colony (MmmSC), using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The risk factors that were evaluated in this study were geographical location, age, sex, breed and body condition. The overall seroprevalence in this study was 28.5%. The seroprevalence of Mycoplasma mycoidesmycoides small colony antibodies at the district level was 40.3%, 19.0% and 5.7% in Gobbu Sayyo, BakoTibbe and Horro districts, respectively. There was a statistically significant variation ( p < 0.05) in the prevalence of antibodies amongst the districts. However, animal-related risk factors, such as age, sex, breed and body condition, were not significantly associated ( p > 0.05) with the serological status of the animal. This study showed that the overall prevalence of CBPP in Western Oromia Zones was high. This warrants the implementation of appropriate preventive and control measures to minimise the economic losses associated with the disease. Keywords: Seroprevalence, CBPP, risk factors, c-ELISA, Western Oromia Zones, Ethiopia

Clausena anisata is a medicinal plant used traditionally to treat myiasis and as an insect repellent by various communities. We have previously demonstrated the effects of C. anisata extracts on blowfly feeding and development in our laboratory. The impact of C. anisata leaf extracts on populations of different fly species on farms in Mpumalanga, South Africa was investigated in this study under field conditions. Flies were exposed to liver baits treated with acetone leaf extracts of C. anisata (150 mg/mL). Fly numbers and composition on two farms, with and without C. anisata treated liver, were compared during a period of 12 weeks when fly populations were expected to be high. Observations were made on fly behaviour and development, adult sizes and numbers. The flies exposed to liver treated with the leaf extract of C. anisata had a decreased rate of development, prolonged larval period, smaller body sizes and more sluggish behaviour compared to those subjected to the control treatment. No significant differences were, however, found between the numbers and sizes of flies on the treated and on the control farm, which was most likely due to the limited nature of the baiting programme we followed. The effects of C. anisata extracts on blowfly behaviour and development observed in previous laboratory studies were confirmed in this field evaluation. Although the extracts did not have a significant effect on the overall population size in this experiment, we believe that the C. anisata leaf extract could be useful in integrated pest management based on its effect on larval development. In addition, species such as Lucilia cuprina and Chrysomya marginalis seemed to have been repelled by the C. anisata treated liver; as a result, further work should explore this aspect and how it can be used for the protection of animals.

Clausena anisata is a medicinal plant used traditionally to treat myiasis and as an insect repellent by various communities. We have previously demonstrated the effects of C. anisata extracts on blowfly feeding and development in our laboratory. The impact of C. anisata leaf extracts on populations of different fly species on farms in Mpumalanga, South Africa was investigated in this study under field conditions. Flies were exposed to liver baits treated with acetone leaf extracts of C. anisata (150 mg/mL). Fly numbers and composition on two farms, with and without C. anisata treated liver, were compared during a period of 12 weeks when fly populations were expected to be high. Observations were made on fly behaviour and development, adult sizes and numbers. The flies exposed to liver treated with the leaf extract of C. anisata had a decreased rate of development, prolonged larval period, smaller body sizes and more sluggish behaviour compared to those subjected to the control treatment. No significant differences were, however, found between the numbers and sizes of flies on the treated and on the control farm, which was most likely due to the limited nature of the baiting programme we followed. The effects of C. anisata extracts on blowfly behaviour and development observed in previous laboratory studies were confirmed in this field evaluation. Although the extracts did not have a significant effect on the overall population size in this experiment, we believe that the C. anisata leaf extract could be useful in integrated pest management based on its effect on larval development. In addition, species such as Lucilia cuprina and Chrysomya marginalis seemed to have been repelled by the C. anisata treated liver; as a result, further work should explore this aspect and how it can be used for the protection of animals.

Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV) is a highly contagious, fatal and economically important viral disease of small ruminants that is still endemic and militates against the production of sheep and goats in endemic areas of the world. The aim of this study was to describe the viral strains within the country. This was carried out by collecting tissue and swab samples from sheep and goats in various agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The phylogeny of archived PPRV strains or isolates and those circulating and causing recent outbreaks was determined by sequencing of the nucleoprotein (N)-gene. Twenty tissue and swab samples from apparently healthy and sick sheep and goats were collected randomly from 18 states, namely 3 states in each of the 6 agro-ecological zones visited. A total of 360 samples were collected. A total of 35 samples of 360 (9.7%) tested positive by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction, of which 25 were from oculo-nasal swabs and 10 were from tissue samples. Neighbour-joining phylogenetic analysis using Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (PAUP) identified four different lineages, that is, lineages I, II, III and IV. Interestingly, the Nigerian strains described in this study grouped in two separate major lineages, that is, lineages II and IV. Strains from Sokoto, Oyo, Plateau and Ondo states grouped according to the historical distribution of PPRV together with the Nigerian 75/1 strain of lineage II, while other strains from Sokoto, Oyo, Plateau, Akwa-Ibom, Adamawa, Kaduna, Lagos, Bauchi, Niger and Kano states grouped together with the East African and Asian strains of lineage IV. This finding confirms that both lineage II and IV strains of PPRV are circulating in Nigeria. Previously, only strains of lineage II were found to be present in the country.

Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV) is a highly contagious, fatal and economically important viral disease of small ruminants that is still endemic and militates against the production of sheep and goats in endemic areas of the world. The aim of this study was to describe the viral strains within the country. This was carried out by collecting tissue and swab samples from sheep and goats in various agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. The phylogeny of archived PPRV strains or isolates and those circulating and causing recent outbreaks was determined by sequencing of the nucleoprotein (N)-gene. Twenty tissue and swab samples from apparently healthy and sick sheep and goats were collected randomly from 18 states, namely 3 states in each of the 6 agro-ecological zones visited. A total of 360 samples were collected. A total of 35 samples of 360 (9.7%) tested positive by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction, of which 25 were from oculo-nasal swabs and 10 were from tissue samples. Neighbour-joining phylogenetic analysis using Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (PAUP) identified four different lineages, that is, lineages I, II, III and IV. Interestingly, the Nigerian strains described in this study grouped in two separate major lineages, that is, lineages II and IV. Strains from Sokoto, Oyo, Plateau and Ondo states grouped according to the historical distribution of PPRV together with the Nigerian 75/1 strain of lineage II, while other strains from Sokoto, Oyo, Plateau, Akwa-Ibom, Adamawa, Kaduna, Lagos, Bauchi, Niger and Kano states grouped together with the East African and Asian strains of lineage IV. This finding confirms that both lineage II and IV strains of PPRV are circulating in Nigeria. Previously, only strains of lineage II were found to be present in the country.