Objective-To evaluate various sampling strategies for potential use in measuring prevalence of antimicrobial susceptibility in cattle. Sample Population-500 isolates of non-type-specific Escherichia coli (NTSEC) isolated from the feces of 50 cows from 2 dairy farms (25 cows/farm and 10 isolates/cow). Procedures-Diameters of inhibition zones for 12 antimicrobials were analyzed to estimate variation among isolates, cows, and farms and then used to determine sampling distributions for a stochastic simulation model to evaluate 4 sampling strategies. These theoretic sampling strategies used a total of 100 isolates in 4 allocations (1 isolate from 100 cows, 2 isolates from 50 cows, 3 isolates from 33 cows, or 4 isolates from 25 cows). Results-Analysis of variance composition revealed that 74.2% of variation was attributable to isolates, 18.5% to cows, and 7.3% to farms. Analysis of results of simulations suggested that when most of the variance was attributable to differences among isolates within a cow, culturing 1 isolate from each of 100 cows underestimated overall prevalence, compared with results for culturing more isolates per cow from fewer cows. When variance was not primarily attributable to differences among isolates, all 4 sampling strategies yielded similar results. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-It is not always possible to predict the hierarchical level at which clustering will have its greatest impact on observed susceptibility distributions. Results suggested that sampling strategies that use testing of 3 or 4 isolates/cow from a representative sample of all animals better characterize herd prevalence of antimicrobial resistance when impacted by clustering.

Objective-To characterize pharmacokinetics of voriconazole in horses after oral and IV administration and determine the in vitro physicochemical characteristics of the drug that may affect oral absorption and tissue distribution. Animals-6 adult horses. Procedures-Horses were administered voriconazole (1 mg/kg, IV, or 4 mg/kg, PO), and plasma concentrations were measured by use of high-performance liquid chromatography. In vitro plasma protein binding and the octanol:water partition coefficient were also assessed. Results-Voriconazole was adequately absorbed after oral administration in horses, with a systemic bioavailability of 135.75 +/- 18.41%. The elimination half-life after a single orally administered dose was 13.11 +/- 2.85 hours, and the maximum plasma concentration was 2.43 +/- 0.4 microgram/mL. Plasma protein binding was 31.68%, and the octanol:water partition coefficient was 64.69. No adverse reactions were detected during the study. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Voriconazole has excellent absorption after oral administration and a long half-life in horses. On the basis of the results of this study, it was concluded that administration of voriconazole at a dosage of 4 mg/kg, PO, every 24 hours will attain plasma concentrations adequate for treatment of horses with fungal infections for which the fungi have a minimum inhibitory concentration less than or equal to 1 microgram/mL. Because of the possible nonlinearity of this drug as well as the potential for accumulation, chronic dosing studies and clinical trials are needed to determine the appropriate dosing regimen for voriconazole in horses.

Objective-To investigate the effects of IV administration of ergotamine and ergovaline and intraruminal administration of ergotamine on electromyographic (EMG) activity of reticuloruminal smooth muscle in conscious sheep. Animals-3 sheep with indwelling electrodes in the musculature of the reticulum and rumen. Procedure-In a crossover design study, reticuloruminal motility before and after IV administration of ergotamine (5, 10, 20, and 40 nmol/kg) or ergovaline (2.5, 5, and 10 nmol/kg) was evaluated; EMG effects were compared with those of corresponding control treatments (IV administration of saline 0.9% NaCl solution or acetone, respectively) in sheep. Ergotamine (800 nmol/kg) or water was also administered intraruminally and their effects compared. Results-After IV administration of ergopeptides, vagally dependent cyclical A and B sequences of contraction of the reticulorumen were immediately inhibited, preceding increases in baseline EMG activity (tonus). The return of cyclical contractions was associated with an increase in contraction amplitude. The effects were dose dependent; administration of 40 nmol of ergotamine/kg resulted in responses that continued for 3 to 4 hours. The effects of intraruminal administration of ergotamine were variable; after 8 hours, EMG activity was increased from baseline for < 2 hours in 1 sheep, 10 hours in another, and > 15 hours in the third. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-In sheep, the effects of ergotamine and ergovaline on reticuloruminal motility after IV administration and the duration of responses following intraruminal administration suggest that disruption of digestion may occur in animals grazing endophyte-infected pasture that has a high ergopeptide content.

Objective-To biomechanically and histologically compare single-layer continuous Cushing and simple continuous appositional cystotomy closure in rats with xylene-induced cystitis. Animals-40 female Sprague-Dawley rats. Procedure-Rats were anesthetized, their urinary bladders catheterized and evacuated, and xylene instilled in each bladder for 5 minutes and then aspirated. Forty-eight hours later, ventral midline celiotomy and cystotomy (8 mm) were performed. Cystotomies were closed with 6-0 poliglecaprone 25 by use of a single-layer continuous Cushing or simple continuous appositional pattern (20 rats/group), and cystotomy times were recorded. Rats were allocated to healing durations (5 rats/group) of 0, 3, 7, and 14 days. Celiotomies were closed in a routine manner. After the allotted healing interval, another celiotomy was performed, the urethra cannulated, and ureters ligated. The cannula was secured to the urethra, and the bladder infused at 0.1 mL/min. Leak pressure volume, leak pressure, peak pressure volume, and peak pressure were recorded via a pressure transducer. Bladders were harvested and histologically assessed. Results-Cystotomy time, biomechanical testing values, and overall inflammation scores did not differ between closure methods for any healing duration. Both methods had significantly greater leak pressures, with the appositional method also having significantly greater peak pressures on day 7, compared to day 0. Biomechanical testing values decreased from day 7 to 14 as a result of juxtaincisional weakening of the bladder and xylene-induced changes in collagen. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Simple continuous appositional was equal biomechanically and histologically to continuous Cushing for all comparison variables. Poliglecaprone 25 was acceptable for cystotomy closure.

Objective-To evaluate the effects of metabolic acidosis and changes in ionized calcium (Ca(2+)) concentration on Pao2 in dogs. Animals-33 anesthetized dogs receiving assisted ventilation. Procedure-Normal acid-base status was maintained in 8 dogs (group I), and metabolic acidosis was induced in 25 dogs. For 60 minutes, normocalcemia was maintained in group I and 10 other dogs (group II), and 10 dogs were allowed to become hypercalcemic (group III); hypocalcemia was then induced in groups I and II. Groups II and IV (5 dogs) were treated identically except that, at 90 minutes, the latter underwent parathyroidectomy. At intervals, variables including Pao2, Ca(2+) concentration, arterial blood pH (pHa), and systolic blood pressure were assessed. Results-In group II, Pao2 increased from baseline value (96 +/- 2 mm Hg) within 10 minutes (pHa, 7.33 +/- 0.001); at 60 minutes (pHa, 7.21 +/- 0.02), Pao2 was 108 +/- 2 mm Hg. For the same pHa decrease, the Pao2 increase was less in group III. In group I, hypocalcemia caused Pao2 to progressively increase (from 95 +/- 2 mm Hg to 104 +/- 3 mm Hg), which correlated (r = -0.66) significantly with a decrease in systolic blood pressure (from 156 +/- 9 mm Hg to 118 +/- 10 mm Hg). Parathyroidectomy did not alter Pao2 values. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-Induction of hypocalcemia and metabolic acidosis each increased Pao2 in anesthetized dogs, whereas acidosis-induced hypercalcemia attenuated that increase. In anesthetized dogs, development of metabolic acidosis or hypocalcemia is likely to affect ventilatory control.

Objective-To determine the pharmacokinetics of methylprednisolone (MP) and develop a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model of the related changes in plasma concentrations of endogenous hydrocortisone (HYD) and cortisone (COR) following intra-articular administration of methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) in horses. Animals-6 Thoroughbreds. Procedures-In each horse, 200 mg of MPA was injected intrasynovially into a carpal joint, and plasma MP, HYD, and COR concentrations were determined via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results-A 5-compartment pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model was used to describe the concatenated changes in the plasma concentrations of MP, HYD, and COR and to estimate the instantaneous rate of endogenous HYD production. The median transfer half-life (t(1/2t)) of methylprednisolone from the joint to plasma and elimination half-life (t(1/2e)) from plasma were 1.7 and 19.2 hours, respectively. Maximum plasma concentration of methylprednisolone was 7.26 +/- 3.3 ng/mL at 8 hours, which decreased to 0.11 +/- 0.08 ng/mL at 144 hours after injection. At 3 hours after MPA administration, plasma COR and HYD concentrations were significantly decreased from baseline values (from 2.9 +/- 0.28 ng/mL to 2.10 +/- 1.0 ng/mL and from 61.1 +/- 18.9 ng/mL to 25.7 +/- 12.1 ng/mL, respectively). Conclusions and Clinical Relevance-The sensitivity of the analytic method used allowed complete description of the related kinetics of MP, HYD, and COR following intra-articular administration of MPA. A single intra-articular administration of MPA profoundly affected the secretion of HYD and COR in horses; secretion of endogenous corticosteroids remained suppressed for as long as 240 hours after injection.

In order to search the availability of the lectin extracted from Korean mistletoe (Viscum album coloratum) as an adjuvant for the avian vaccines, attempts were made to determine toxicity of the lectin in chicks and its immunostimulating activity on the inactivated vaccines against Newcastle disease virus (NDV). For the determination of toxicity, the lectin was injected into the thigh muscle of SPF chicks (Charles River) of 1-week-old and observed hematologically and pathologically.

The VP2 full gene of Korean infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) strain, SH/92, three attenuated vaccine strains, Bur706, Bursine-2 and CEVAC strains, were amplified by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and sequenced and compared with published PV2 gene sequences of IBDVs. The VP2 nucleotide sequence similarity between SH/92 and three vaccine stains was 95.6~96.5% whereas the nucleic acid similarity among three vaccine strains was 97.5~98.5%. The amino acid sequence similarity of VP2 of SH/92 compared with three vaccine strains was between 94.4 and 97.6% while the amino acid similarity among three vaccine strains was between 97.4 and 98.4%.

To determine the effects of exposure to formalin on the secondary stress indices, changes in haematology and blood chemistry were monitored in healthy crucian carps (Carassius auratus). Fishes were separately exposed in a concentration range of 125 to 500 ppm formalin for 60 min. After exposure, red blood cell (RBC) count and packed cell volume (PCV) were elevated in the 500 ppm formalin exposed group. However, mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) were decreased significantly in the 500 ppm formalin exposed group.