The objective of the present study was to prepare CuFe2O4 ferrite nanoparticles using the sol-gel combustion method, employing lemon juice as a surfactant and energy agent. This method is located within the green chemistry, representing an environmentally friendly and less expensive approach compared to other methods. The nanoparticles were subsequently evaluated as antibacterial agents against different pathogenic bacteria. Before the antibacterial assays, a cytotoxicity test was conducted to evaluate their safety when applied to organisms. The structural, morphological, elemental composition, and magnetic properties of the samples were analyzed using Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Field Emission-Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM), and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Detection (EDX). The X-ray diffraction patterns confirmed both the phase purity and the particle size to be 24.27 nm. The results demonstrated that the CuFe2O4 nanoparticles exhibited substantial antibacterial activity against both Gram-negative bacteria (Sphingomonas paucimobilis) and Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus lentus and Bacillus subtilis). The antibacterial efficacy was more pronounced against Gram-negative bacteria, with inhibition diameter 5.46mm and 10.64mm at concentrations of 5000 ppm and 10000 ppm, respectively. When making a comparison, the effectiveness against Gram-positive bacteria displayed a slight reduction. Inhibition zones measured 2.76 mm and 8.33 mm for Staphylococcus lentus, while they were 3.58 mm and 5.35 mm for Bacillus subtilis. These measurements were observed at nanoparticle concentrations of 5000 ppm and 10000 ppm, respectively. Furthermore, the study confirmed the safety of the CuFe2O4 nanoparticles by assessing their toxicity on human red blood cell at different concentrations (50, 100,250,500,1000,5000, and 10000 ppm).

The removal of antibiotics has attracted much attention due to their extremely high adverse impacts on the environment. However, the potential risks of degradation intermediates are seldom reported. In this work, the influence of different factors on the electro-catalytic degradation efficiency of tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) by the prepared carbon nanotubes/agarose/indium tin oxide (CNTs/AG/ITO) electrode was investigated. Under optimal conditions (10 wt% CNTs dosage, pH = 7), the maximum degradation efficiency for TCH (10 mg L⁻¹) reached up to 96% within 30 min treatment with 4 V potential. Superoxide anions (•O₂⁻) played an important role in the electro-catalytic degradation. Totally 10 degradation intermediates were identified using HPLC-MS/MS, and the degradation pathway was proposed. Toxicities of the parent antibiotic and the identified intermediates were calculated using the ECOSAR (Ecological Structure Activity Relationship) program in EPISuite, and results showed that more toxic intermediates were generated. The maximal chronic toxicity for green algae of the intermediate increased 1439.92 times. Furthermore, antimicrobial activity was further verified by disk agar biocidal tests with Escherichia coli ATCC25922 and higher biotoxicity intermediates compared with parent compounds were confirmed to be formed. Therefore, more attention should be paid on the potential risk of degradation intermediates in the treatment of wastewater containing antibiotics.

Recently, concerns have been raised that residues of glyphosate-based herbicides may interfere with the homeostasis of the intestinal bacterial community and thereby affect the health of humans or animals. The biochemical pathway for aromatic amino acid synthesis (Shikimate pathway), which is specifically inhibited by glyphosate, is shared by plants and numerous bacterial species. Several in vitro studies have shown that various groups of intestinal bacteria may be differently affected by glyphosate. Here, we present results from an animal exposure trial combining deep 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the bacterial community with liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) based metabolic profiling of aromatic amino acids and their downstream metabolites. We found that glyphosate as well as the commercial formulation Glyfonova®450 PLUS administered at up to fifty times the established European Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI = 0.5 mg/kg body weight) had very limited effects on bacterial community composition in Sprague Dawley rats during a two-week exposure trial. The effect of glyphosate on prototrophic bacterial growth was highly dependent on the availability of aromatic amino acids, suggesting that the observed limited effect on bacterial composition was due to the presence of sufficient amounts of aromatic amino acids in the intestinal environment. A strong correlation was observed between intestinal concentrations of glyphosate and intestinal pH, which may partly be explained by an observed reduction in acetic acid produced by the gut bacteria. We conclude that sufficient intestinal levels of aromatic amino acids provided by the diet alleviates the need for bacterial synthesis of aromatic amino acids and thus prevents an antimicrobial effect of glyphosate in vivo. It is however possible that the situation is different in cases of human malnutrition or in production animals.

Municipal wastewater contains multi-component mixtures of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). This could shape microbial communities in sewage treatment plants (STPs) and the effluent-receiving ecosystems. In this paper we assess the risk of antimicrobial effects in STPs and the aquatic environment for a mixture of 18 APIs that was previously detected in the effluent of a European municipal STP. Effects on microbial consortia (collected from a separate STP) were determined using respirometry, enumeration of culturable microorganisms and community-level physiological profiling. The mixture toxicity against selected bacteria was assessed using assays with Pseudomonas putida and Vibrio fischeri. Additional data on the toxicity to environmental bacteria were compiled from literature in order to assess the individual and expected joint bacterial toxicity of the pharmaceuticals in the mixture. The reported effluent concentration of the mixture was 15.4 nmol/l and the lowest experimentally obtained effect concentrations (EC10) were 242 nmol/l for microbial consortia in STPs, 225 nmol/l for P. putida and 73 nmol/l for V. fischeri. The lowest published effect concentrations (EC50) of the individual antibiotics in the mixture range between 15 and 150 nmol/l, whereas 0.9–190 μmol/l was the range of bacterial EC50 values found for the non-antibiotic mixture components. Pharmaceutical cocktails could shape microbial communities at concentrations relevant to STPs and the effluent receiving aquatic environment. The risk of antimicrobial mixture effects was completely dominated by the presence of antibiotics, whereas other pharmaceutical classes contributed only negligibly to the mixture toxicity. The joint bacterial toxicity can be accurately predicted from the individual toxicity of the mixture components, provided that standardized data on representative bacterial strains becomes available for all relevant compounds. These findings argue for a more sophisticated bacterial toxicity assessment of environmentally relevant pharmaceuticals, especially for those with a mode of action that is known to specifically affect prokaryotic microorganisms.

Antibiotics can be uptaken by plants from soil desorption or directly from irrigation water, but their metabolization pathways in plants are largely unknown. In this paper, an analytical workflow based on high-resolution mass spectrometry was applied for the systematic identification of biotransformation products of ofloxacin in lettuce. The targeted metabolites were selected by comparing the mass chromatograms of exposed with control samples using an advanced spectra-processing method (Fragment Ion Search). The innovative methodology presented allowed us to identify a total of 11 metabolites, including 5 ofloxacin metabolites that are being reported for the first time in plants. Accordingly, major transformation pathways were proposed revealing insight into how ofloxacin and related chemicals are metabolized in lettuce. Furthermore, the influence of biotransformation on potential residual antimicrobial activity of identified compounds was discussed. Human exposure to antibiotics at doses below the minimum inhibitory concentrations is crucial in human risk assessment, including food ingestion; however, in the case of ofloxacin presented results reveal that plant metabolites should also be considered so as not to underestimate their risk.

Robust antimicrobial capability is crucial for marine organisms survival in complex ocean environments. Although the detrimental impacts of emergent pollutants on cellular immune response of marine bivalve mollusks were increasingly documented, the effects of bisphenol A (BPA) and microplastics (MPs) on humoral immune response and hemocyte chemotactic activity remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, the toxicities of BPA and MPs, alone or in combination, to the antimicrobial ability, humoral immune response, and hemocyte chemotactic activity were investigated in the blood clam Tegillarca granosa. Our data demonstrated that exposure of blood clams to BPA, MPs, and BPA-MPs for 2 weeks lead to significant reductions in their survival rates upon pathogenic bacterial challenge, indicating evident impairment of antimicrobial ability. Compared to control, the plasma of pollutant-incubated blood clams exhibited significantly less antimicrobial activity against the growth of V. harveyi, suggesting significant reduction in humoral immune effectors including defensin, lysozyme (LZM), and lectin. Moreover, hemocytes migration across the polycarbonate membrane to the serum containing chamber was markedly arrested by 2-week exposure to BPA, MPs, and BPA-MPs, suggesting a hampered chemotactic activity. In addition, the intracellular contents of ROS and protein carbonyl in hemocytes were markedly induced whereas the expression levels of key genes from the MAPK and actin cytoskeleton regulation pathways were significantly suppressed upon exposure. In this study, it was also found that BPA-MP coexposure was significantly more toxic than single exposures. In summary, our findings revealed that exposure to the pollutants tested possibly impair the antimicrobial ability of blood clam through (1) reducing the inhibitory effect of plasma on bacterial growth, the contents of humoral immune effectors, and the chemotactic activity of hemocytes, (2) interrupting IL-17 activation of MAPK signal pathway, (3) inducing intracellular ROS, elevating protein carbonylation levels, and disrupting actin cytoskeleton regulation in hemocytes.

Forest fires can threaten amphibians because ash-associated contaminants transported by post-fire runoff impact both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Still, the effects of these contaminants on the skin microbiome of amphibians have been overlooked. Thus, the main objective of this study was to assess the effects of ash from different severity wildfires (moderate and high) on the skin microbiome of the Iberian frog (Rana iberica). Bacterial isolates sampled from R. iberica skin microbiome were tested for their antimicrobial activity against the pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida. The isolates with antimicrobial activity were identified and further exposed to several concentrations (0, 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 75, and 100%) of Eucalypt (Eucalyptus globulus) aqueous extracts (AAEs) of ash from both a moderate and a high severity wildfire. The results showed that 53% of the bacterial isolates presented antimicrobial activity, with Pseudomonas being the most common genus. Exposure to AAEs had diverse effects on bacterial growth since a decrease, an increase or no effects on growth were observed. For both ash types, increasing AAEs concentrations led to an increase in the number of bacteria whose growth was negatively affected. Ash from the high severity fire showed more adverse effects on bacterial growth than those from moderate severity, likely due to the higher metal concentrations of the former. This study revealed that bacteria living in Iberian frogs' skin could be impaired by ash-related contaminants, potentially weakening the individual's immune system. Given the foreseen increase in wildfires' frequency and severity under climate change, this work raises awareness of the risks faced by amphibian communities in fire-prone regions, emphasising the importance of a rapid implementation of post-fire emergency measures for the preservation and conservation of this group of animals.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are expected to enter aquatic systems, but there are limited data on how they might affect microbial communities in pathogen impaired streams. We examined microbial community responses to citrate-AgNP (10.9 ± 0.7 nm) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)–AgNP (11.0 ± 0.7 nm) based on microbial concentration and enzyme activity in sediment from a pathogen impaired stream. Addition of each nanoparticle to sediment caused at least a 69% decrease in microbial concentration (1,264 ± 93.6 to 127 ± 29.5 CFU/g) and a 62% decrease in β-glucosidase activity (11.7 ± 2.1 to 1.3 ± 0.3 μg/g/h). Each AgNP reduced alkaline phosphatase activity but their effects were not statistically significant. Sediment exposed to 0.108 mg Ag/kg of AgNO₃ resulted in a 92% decrease in microbial concentration and a reduced enzyme activity which was not statistically significant. Measured total silver in sediments treated with AgNPs which exhibited significant inhibition effects on the microbial community ranged from 0.19 ± 0.02 to 0.39 ± 0.13 mg Ag/kg. These concentrations tested in this study are much lower than the expected concentrations (2–14 mg Ag/kg) in freshwater sediments. The results of this study demonstrate that AgNPs can alter microbial community activity and population size, which may lead to false negative fecal indicator bacteria detection and enumeration using methods that rely on β-glucosidase activity. We conclude that the presence of AgNPs in impaired streams and recreational waters can influence pathogen detection methods, potentially affecting public health risk estimates.

The process of embalming human remains as part of the funeral home industry, entails replacing blood with embalming fluid. Typically the unused/excess fluids are disposed of directly to the sewershed or septic system. The presence of select contaminants in sewer discharges from 8 funeral homes (facilities) in York Region, Ontario during active embalming processes was studied. A wide range of contaminants including embalming fluids (formaldehyde and triclosan); metals, conventional parameters, persistent organic pollutants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, and polychlorinated byphenyls), nonyl phenols and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) were measured in the final embalming effluent and compared to regulatory sewer limits where available. Two main constituents of embalming fluids—formaldehyde and triclosan—were detected at maximum concentrations of 561,000 μg/L and 505 μg/L respectively. Other persistent organic pollutants detected in embalming effluent included banned pesticides lindane (83 ng/L) and metabolites of DDT (DDE; 2,300 ng/L). Elevated APIs found in over-the-counter drugs and products were also frequently detected at elevated concentrations (oxybenzone, hydrocortisone, lidocaine, naproxen, ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin and DEET). Most contaminants did not exceed regulatory sewer limits where available, however others including biochemical oxygen demand (cBOD5) and conventional parameters were consistently above regulatory limits. Large amounts of formaldehyde and triclosan may pose a risk to receiving sewersheds and receiving sewage treatment plants due to their antimicrobial activities.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely incorporated in many products, partly due to their antimicrobial properties. The subsequent discharge of this form of silver into wastewater leads to an accumulation of silver species (AgNPs and derivatives resulting from their chemical transformation), in sewage sludge. As a result of the land application of sewage sludge for agricultural or remediation purposes, soils are the primary receiver media of silver contamination. Research on the long-term impact of AgNPs on the environment is ongoing, and this paper is the first review that summarizes the existing state of scientific knowledge on the potential impact of silver species introduced into the soil via sewage sludge, from microorganisms to earthworms and plants. Silver species can easily enter cells through biological membranes and affect the physiology of organisms, resulting in toxic effects. In soils, exposure to AgNPs may change microbial biomass and diversity, decrease plant growth and inhibit soil invertebrate reproduction. Physiological, biochemical and molecular effects have been documented in various soil organisms and microorganisms. Negative effects on organisms of the dominant form of silver in sewage sludge, silver sulfide (Ag₂S), have been observed, although these effects are attenuated compared to the effects of metallic AgNPs. However, silver toxicity is complex to evaluate and much remains unknown about the ecotoxicology of silver species in soils, especially with respect to the possibility of transfer along the trophic chain via accumulation in plant and animal tissues. Critical points related to the hazards associated with the presence of silver species in the environment are described, and important issues concerning the ecotoxicity of sewage sludge applied to soil are discussed to highlight gaps in existing scientific knowledge and essential research directions for improving risk assessment.