Technologies of keeping livestock and management of manure pig complexes holdings built in the country under the Soviet regime no longer satisfy modern veterinary and environmental requirements. Conditions for the modernisation of such complexes were created as from 2000, when agricultural aid programmes (funds) appeared in Lithuania. Information about old and newly implemented manure management technologies, fertilisation value of manure, and quality of the drainage runoff from manure-fertilised fields has been collected in six large livestock companies. Analysis of collected data revealed that new livestock keeping, feeding and manure management technologies are more cost-effective in using energy and mineral resources and conform to the animal welfare, environmental protection and hygiene requirements that are becoming more and more stringent. As the traditional manure management in economic terms is quite expensive and has a significant impact on the environmental quality, academic community is looking for new manure processing methods. The global development of manure management technologies focuses on the manure processing in biogas plants. Biogas generated from liquid manure and animal waste in such plants is an alternative source of energy.

Rising oil prices, national security concerns, the desire to increase farm incomes, and a host of new and improved technologies are propelling the European Union to set the directive for the year 2010 – each member state should achieve at least 5.75% biofuel usage of all used transport fuel. The report on the progress made in the use of renewable fuels shows that the average Member State of the EU has achieved only 52% of its target, and biofuels’ share in 2010 will not raise much above 4%. The prices of different biofuels are still not able to compete with oil based fuel prices. One of the possible ways how to solve this problem is to optimize biofuel supply chains using different methods of systems engineering. The aims of this investigation were finding out appropriate simulation tools for biofuel supply chain modelling, development of rapeseed oil supply chains for different production types, and modelling the developed supply chains. As the result of software survey, two packages were chosen – AnyLogic and ExtendSim Suite. Modelling studies showed that rapeseed oil supply chain is very sensitive, because changing just single parameters in a short scale, the actual cost price of 1 litre of oil changes considerably. Comparing the fossil diesel fuel prices with rape oil actual cost from modelling studies, the use of oil as a fuel for farm machinery seems to be profitable. Analysis of costs distribution shows that the greatest part is composed by rapeseed growing expenses.

By using analytical correlations derived as a result of theoretical research, a computer algorithm has been worked out for simulating the functions of the plough body and the forces exerted by soil upon the operating parts, as well as its draft resistance. These correlations allow to determine the draft resistance of the plough depending on the parameters of its body, as well as to evaluate the impact of the physical and mechanical properties of soil, such as friction upon it. The greatest influence upon the draft resistance is exerted by soil hardness, density and slip resistance along the surfaces of the operating parts. The latter is also affected by soil adhesion, which particularly manifests itself in wet clay soils at lower temperatures. It has been clarified that the friction resistance constitutes 46–62% of the total draft resistance of the plough body. The main ways of lowering the friction resistance and the total draft resistance of the plough are the introduction of a more rational design of its body having optimum parameters, decreasing the resistance of the share-mouldboard surface and the values of reactions of the supporting surfaces, as well as the application of antifriction materials and better modes of joining with tractors.

Researchers have found that morphology of muscle structure (original or after processing) is closely related to meat tenderness, which is very important attribute for consumer. The aim of the study was to evaluate changes in microstructure of poultry meat during the chilled storage. In the study, the cross-cut microstructure of parents stock hen and broiler muscles were analyzed during the storage at + 1 +- 0.5 °C temperature. The changes were determined for the following muscles: musculus pectoralis and pars praeacetabularis musculus iliotibialis lateralis in seven hours after slaughter and on the 7th day of storage. Parents’ stock (PS) hens were slaughtered on 61st week, but broilers at the age of 42 days (on the 6th week). The decrease in area of muscle fibres of hens and broilers' musculus pectoralis was found in both types of meat when comparing the sample on 7th hour and 7th day, but the smaller decrease was observed in broilers meat. Comparing muscle fibre area of broiler and hen pars praeacetabularis musculus iliotibialis lateralis [musculus biceps femoris] in hen meat it was reduced in higher proportion, but the distance between the fibres was increased reaching similar values for both sample types.

The influence of solvent, storage time and temperature on the stability of the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin (STC) was investigated. STC calibrants (1.0 μg mlE-1) in acetonitrile, methanol and mixture of acetonitrile and methanol (50:50, volume/volume) were stored in dark glass bottles at (– 25), 4 and 25 °C for up to 8 weeks. Samples were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet (UV) detection. Obtained results indicate that more suitable solvents for storage of STC standard solutions at (–25 °C) are acetonitrile and mixture of acetonitrile and methanol (50:50, v/v), but not longer than for one week; for storage at 4 °C more suitable is mix of acetonitrile and methanol, but not longer than for one week.

Processing and cooking methods can greatly affect the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables including potatoes. In human nutrition potatoes before consumption are always prepared by several cooking methods and are one of the central components of warm meals. During treatment processes considerable changes in nutritional composition and nutritional quality of the product are induced. Hence the aim of the study was to determine the amount of basic nutrients (carbohydrate, fat and protein) as well as essential amino acids in five Latvian potato varieties prepared by the following heat treatment methods: baking in oven, shallow frying and deep fat frying and to compare the obtained results with recommended daily intake (RDI). Achieved results show significant differences in total carbohydrate amount within potato varieties (p=0.007) while within the type of heat treatments were no significance (p=0.065). Changes in fat content between heat treatment processes were considerable (p=0.000) whereas significance were discovered between control – pan fried, control – deep fat fried, baked in oven – pan fried, baked in oven – deep fat fried as well as pan fried – deep fat fried samples while no significance found among potato varieties (p=0.391). In protein amount neither within potato varieties nor between heat treatment processes significance was discovered, but the amount of essential amino acids significantly differs per each potato variety and type of heat treatment processes. Results on RDI per each nutrient group (fat, carbohydrates and protein) show significance on % RDI per each basic nutrient.

Investigations of textural parameters of vacuum, protective gas atmosphere (MAP), and at air ambiance packed fresh carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) farmed in Latvia were carried out. The samples of carp were stored at two different temperatures (0 +- 0.5 and +4 +- 0.5 ºC) applying three different types of packaging – vacuum, MAP, and wrapping at air ambiance. Gas mixture used for MAP consisted of 40% CO2 and 60% N2. Samples were analyzed before packaging (day 0) and after 2, 4, 6, 8, 11 and 14 storage days. Textural parameters – hardness and shear force were evaluated by texture analyzer TA.XT.plus (Stable Micro System Ltd.). Two instrumental methods were applied for evaluation of textural properties. One method was based on compression test, using spherical probe, 25.4 mm in diameter (type P/1S), and measuring the hardness of the fillet and other method was based on cutting the fillet with a blade (type HDP/BSK) and measuring the shear force. The instrumental hardness and shear force of fresh carp fillets decreased during storage time. Texture variables significantly correlate with storage time, respectively, r = -0.723 and r = -0.748, the hardness and shear force. The storage time, temperature and packaging type with probability of 95 % substantially influence the textural parameters of carp fillets (P is less than 0.05).

The objectives of this study were to (1) describe the economic agents of the chain and their commercial and legal relationships; (2) identify the articulations between links, technological levels, indicators of efficiency, installed capacity (scale), and degrees of occupation; (3) characterize and estimate the costing and pricing structures, and the generation of value in different links of the chain; (4) identify those critical costs that can be modified through technological interventions, policy, or other activity; (5) determine the biological and economic risk factors throughout the chain; and (6) develop a methodology to identify and estimate the costs and benefits in each segment and evaluate the generation of value throughout the beef chain. Data at the farm level was obtained from a national livestock survey (CORFOGA 2005b), which provided data on production systems, inventories, productivity, culling, and labor. In addition, surveys were carried out in different segments: (1) auction houses, (2) slaughterhouses, (3) butcher shops, and (4) supermarkets. The aim of these surveys was to describe behavior, determine risks and costs, and identify problems. The weak dynamics of livestock production in Costa Rica are reflected in unsatisfactory productivity indicators. The annual gross income was estimated as US$44/ha for cow-calf operations, $126/ha for dual purpose (including income from milk sales), and $135/ha for fattening activities. Such income rates are considered extremely low, if one uses as reference the commercial value of land allocated to livestock production (ranging between $1000 and $2000/ha). The aforementioned biological inefficiencies, combined with high land costs, impede the recovery of opportunity costs for the capital invested in land, thus making beef production uncompetitive. The cow-calf operation, with its low productivity, remunerates family labor with wages below the legal minimum. On the assumption that the only cash cost is that of labor, cow-calf farms pay family workers at a wage that is equivalent to 60% of the legal minimum. Auctions present relatively good profits per event. However, when these profits are analyzed on a calendar-day basis, they are unattractive because of the low use of installed capacity. One strategy that would usefully improve the efficiency of the auction system in Costa Rica is its integration to reduce the number of fixed operational costs or encourage sharing of these houses so that administrative and operational personnel are rotated among the several existing auctions, taking advantage of the fact that they differ in their days of operation. This scheme would help reduce fixed costs and the commission collected without affecting profits, thus improving efficiency in this link of the chain. However, this option is not easy to implement, as auctions are run by private operators, whose various interests do not always coincide. The industrial sector formed by rural and industrial slaughterhouses shows a low occupation of installed capacity, resulting in high operational costs and low labor efficiency. The total operational costs of slaughtering and dressing are estimated as being between US$32 and $66 per animal. If the estimated unit costs are compared with the rates charged per slaughtered animal (between $15 and $23), then we have to conclude that rural slaughterhouses work at a loss and that industrial slaughterhouses cover their operational costs with processing services and the very small profit margins from sales of byproducts. The best performance in terms of efficiency and profitability is found in the retail sector of butchers and supermarkets. The rate of profits, expressed as the fraction of the final price paid by the consumer that remains in the butcher’s hands as remuneration of his work, ranges widely between 3% and 40%, with an average of 32%. If these profit rates are compared with those of other retail businesses, which are about 8%, then this type of activity presents excellent profit margins with relatively low risk. If, in addition, we take into account that this sector also offers the consumer a broad range of meat cuts from other animals such as pork and chicken, and processed meats, then profit margins are still higher. The value generated throughout the chain, as a percentage of the final value of the young steer at retail price according to activity, is distributed as follows: fattener (34%), retailer (33%), breeder (19%), slaughterhouse (7%), transporter (6%), and auction house (1%). As observed, the distribution of value throughout the beef chain is totally inequitable and incongruent with the level of individual risk confronted by the actors who form it. The inequity observed in the distribution of added value reflects a clear dominant position in the market of some actors of the chain, which enables them to capture a very high fraction of the profits. The value generated in the chain, adjusted for operational time in each link, ranges between US$0.28/animal per day for the breeder and $45.85/animal per day for the butcher. Thus, the highest proportion of the total added value concentrates on the final link of the chain. The butcher or supermarket obtains, on the basis of one animal in the same unit of time, 164 times more value that the breeder located in the first link of the chain. The latter has to confront biological and economic risks not covered by insurance policies, whereas retailers may mitigate risks through insurance policies for their raw materials, equipment, and infrastructure. The competitiveness of the beef chain is the aggregate of the efficiency and productivity of all the links that form it. In a situation where, in the final segment, the demand for beef is low and weakly dynamic, then economic signs of modernization and the technological change it promotes, are not being generated in other components of the chain, particularly in the first link of production. This, in turn, results in a vicious cycle, generating low productivity and lack of competitiveness. To promote technological change, efficiency, and competitiveness in the value chain for beef in Costa Rica, we propose the following six recommendations: 1. That successful experiences of other chains such as that of poultry be analyzed and learned from to identify strategies that would increase the efficiency of the beef chain as a whole. 2. That strategies for promoting the milk production of breeding cows be developed to increase family income, as remuneration of labor is currently below the minimum wage. This option would be viable only in localities where a milk market exists. That livestock producer funds [a livestock producer fund consists of granting livestock in company to produce meat, provided that the producer concerned has adequate pastures for this purpose on his farm] be created as mechanisms to develop social capital, reduce transaction costs, and help improve the chain’s productivity and profitability. These organizations would bring together the different classes of the chain and favor synergies in the interaction of public and private actors. 3. That incentives be created to promote the large-scale adoption of already available improved forage species, as most of the problem of low livestock productivity originates in poor and deficient feed. This strategy would emphasize feeding during dry seasons, thereby minimizing seasonal weight losses in the national herd and improving the profitability of farms. 4. That a carcass classification system be established, based on quality and price that would permit differentiating supplies for different segments of the market. 5. That consumer education be promoted on the health benefits of beef, forms of preparation, and differentiating between cuts, uses, and qualities of beef products.

In this study the development of meat sector in terms of livestock population, production, farm size and reproductive material, which forms economic basis for effective meat production was analysed. The aim of the study was to investigate main tendencies of meat production sector and development of economic basis in Latvian agriculture. To achieve the set aim following objectives were defined: 1) to analyse concentration and specialization processes of pig breeding farms; 2) to describe restructuring processes of reproductive pig breeding; 3) to investigate restructuring processes of farms producing beef; 4) to characterize concentration and integration processes in poultry production. The study was based on annual statistical data and statistical bulletins covering results of the Farm Structure Survey from 2001 to 2006, scientific publications, special literature and reports of international organizations. To carry out the research adequate research methods were used. The results of this study showed that meat industry has structurally changed in recent years, where the structural change can be defined as the change in the number and size of farms in pig, cattle and poultry sectors. The results also suggested that meat production sector in Latvia has become more intensive, concentrating meat production in large and specialized farms, where this tendency can stimulate the increase of meat production. Therefore, knowledge of the current tendencies and strategies of pig, cattle and poultry sectors is a necessary precondition for the development of the meat sector.

It has been shown in previous studies that transaction costs (TC) of agri-environmental policy measures often are very large both in absolute terms and as a share of payments. As agri-environmental policy measures make up an increasingly large share of agricultural policies, not least within the European Union, it is becoming ever more important to improve the knowledge about the factors determining the level of transaction costs. This paper investigates the TC determinants of one Swedish agri-environmental policy measure. More specifically, it aims to investigate if the level of TC is attributable to economic factors, such as pasture density and distances, or if political factors, such as lobby groups and political majorities at the county level, influence the costs. To evaluate if the results are robust with respect to alterations in model specifications, a version of the extreme bounds analysis is applied. Although initial results indicate that political parties influence the level of transaction costs, the extreme bounds analysis reveals that those results are fragile. It shows that five of the economic variables are robust with respect to model specifications, but none of the political variables is.