The objective of this study was to estimate the benefits received by producers who adopted improved forages as part of a project[1] carried out in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica in terms of increased productivity, stocking rate, and income due to the additional sale of milk and beef in retribution for family labor. Data were obtained from a survey carried out in 2007 that included nine producers in Guatemala, 16 in Honduras, 16 in Nicaragua, and 15 in Costa Rica who had adopted different grass and legume options during the period 2003-2007. The area planted to improved pastures increased in all countries, ranging from 12% in Guatemala to 105% in Nicaragua. Except for Guatemala (where the animal inventory decreased almost 11% due to Hurricane Stan), all countries expanded their herds (between 34% and 41%) in practically all animal categories, not only adult cows. On-farm milk production during the dry season increased 9% in Guatemala, 47% in Honduras and Nicaragua, and 71% in Costa Rica. Milk production during the rainy season remained practically invariable in Guatemala, but increased 48% in Honduras, 19% in Nicaragua, and 53% in Costa Rica. On the other hand, these increases in milk production were also favored by the rise in milk prices in all countries, ranging from 7% in Nicaragua to 36% in Costa Rica during the dry season and from 4% in Nicaragua to 36% in Costa Rica during the rainy season. Beef production accordingly increased 15% in Nicaragua, 46% in Honduras, and 74% in Costa Rica. similar to the trend observed in milk production, beef production did not increase in Guatemala because producers had to sell animals to recover from the losses caused by Hurricane Stan. Likewise, at the end of the project, producers in all countries received higher prices as compared with those obtained at the beginning of the project. The price of beef paid to the producer increased 9% in Guatemala, 4% in Honduras, 5% in Nicaragua, and 11% in Costa Rica. Because of these significant increases in annual milk and meat production, major increases were also observed in the annual net income of farms, reaching 32% in Guatemala, 288% in Honduras, 177% in Nicaragua, and 238% in Costa Rica. These extraordinary increases in net income can be attributed to three factors: (1) the higher milk price in 2007 as compared with that of 2003; (2) higher production due to the better diet; and (3) increased production due to the higher stocking rate allowed because of the adoption of and increase in area sown to improved forages. The increase in the net income of these producers has triggered an increase in the economic returns to family labor, as compared with the commercial value of a day’s wages. Therefore, the returns to family labor in Guatemala went from 3.1 times the value of the minimum wage in 2003 to 6.0 times that value in 2007, representing a 97% increase. In Honduras, the returns to family labor went from 2.9 times the minimum wage in 2003 to 9.8 times that value in 2007, representing a 238% increase. Similarly, in Nicaragua these returns represented a 104% increase and in Costa Rica a 200% increase.

In a trial whereby a large number of cows were needed to calve at approximately the same time, opportunity was taken to establish a crossbred cow population at the International Trypanotolerance (ITC). A slight improvement in the traditional husbandry system revealed a great productivity potential of these crossbreds. Their survival rate to one year (i.e., 90.0%for the Jersey X N’Dama (J X N) and 71.2% for the Friesian X N’Dama was proved satisfactory in the local environment, though conclusions are that more attention is needed for rearing Friesian type F1 calves in the tropical environment. With an overall mean birth weight of 17.7±4.1 kg and an overall mean daily weight gain (DWG) of 0.220±0.104 kg they attained an average weight of 100.6±29.9 kg at one year. Their relatively retarded growth recommended a better management. Puberty was attained at 478.2±13.9 days, age at first calving 970.5±94.1 days and the overall mean calving interval and open period were 400±82.5 and 117±83.2 days, respectively.

The concept of the state fiscal policy is developed by the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Economics. The State Revenue Service (hereinafter - SRS) is the administrative body carrying out the fiscal policy in Latvia. Ensuring of tax revenue is the main operational task of the SRS. Based on the consideration that the tax revenue plan for the regions is drafted correctly, i.e. by taking into account the macroeconomic situation in the country and the research contains calculations of the regional budget revenue plan performance indicators which prove that the regional tax revenue planning method is efficient thus efficient tax administration is one of the main factors influencing tax revenue. Considerable part of the research is devoted to the role of the SRS and its operation in order to improve the tax administration efficiency. Polls concerning satisfaction of the SRS clients are carried out for this purpose. By evaluating the poll results it has been stated that by organising seminars for taxpayers the specific character of business in any particular region should be taken into account. It would be useful to organise thematic seminars about applying taxes in specific business areas. In Kurzeme region and Riga it would be efficient to organise seminars on applying of taxes for businesses dealing with international transportation by sea and businesses supplying goods and rendering services for ships which are used for navigation in international waters.

Forest is the ecosystem which consists of different related components and fulfils important environmental, economic, and social functions. Each of these components is of particular value in public perception. In the beginning of September, 2007 social research was carried out in Latvia in order to understand the meaning and importance of forest value on the questionnaire base. This survey focuses on how people, whose everyday life is related to forest sector, perceive forest values. The forest values were divided into thirteen factors. To determine the most important forest value, the participants’ answers significance was evaluated basing upon the concordance coefficient and using descriptive statistic methods. The research revealed that despite the multifunctional use of forest the basic value is granted to timber and forest land. As well as respondents were not shown significant differences expressing their opinions when they were divided into different groups (forest owners, forest sector employees and other). Results of the survey have shown that the public in Latvia are not able to value and calculate forest environmental and social functions.

This paper discusses the continuous field view of representing geography and its role in forest inventory. Describing all forest attributes at any location or point and storing this information in digital databases, as an alternative to store forest compartments as vector polygons and associated attributes, is considered to be important for development of remote sensing and GIS applications for forest inventories. Main results achieved following this approach during the last decade in Lithuanian university of agriculture are described. Special research polygon near Kaunas was developed. Four auxiliary data sources (Spot Xi, Landsat TM, digital aerial photos and stand-wise inventory material), three estimators (two-phase sampling with stratification, the k-nearest neighbours and regression) as well as different methods for auxiliary data integration were examined to get point-wise forest characteristics. The lowest root mean square errors at a level of virtual sample point using optimal implementation tactics are – for mean diameter 24 %, height 18%, age 28%, basal area 37%, volume per 1 ha 40% and percentage of coniferous trees 29% of the mean value of corresponding forest characteristic. Integrating additional auxiliary information – characteristics of forest compartments, estimated during the conventional stand-wise inventory – and satellite images improved the overall estimation accuracy. Pre-stratification of sample plots using the attributes of compartments improved the estimation accuracy for certain stand groups. A new approach of segmentation, aimed to construct conventional forest compartments – estimation of point-wise forest characteristics for every pixel of satellite imagery and using them instead of original image values – was suggested and investigated.

The productivity and quality of different origin Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) progenies at the age of 43 were estimated. The investigation was carried out in 1964. The seeds from six stands growing on mineral and peaty soils in different environmental conditions were sowed. The thinning was done in 2006. The following growth and quality characters were investigated: height of the trees, diameter at breast height, stem volume, standing volume, branch free tree length, branch thickness, branch angle, stem’s straightness. The growth and quality differences of the progenies depending on the seed origin were estimated. The environmental conditions of the Zvirgzde origin place and the test locality were similar. The progeny of the Zvirgzde stand showed superiority in the growth traits (height, diameter, stem volume) as well as good stem quality and high quality of the assortment outcome in thinning. The progeny of the swamp stand (Tireli) had low values in all investigated traits. A significant influence of the environmental conditions of the seeds origin place on the growth and quality of the progeny was found out. Environmental conditions of seeds origin locality and place of forest regeneration have to be similar to avoid decrease of progeny stand’s growth and quality.

In Latvia, birch is the second most widespread tree species; the share of birch is higher in private forests. The Forest Research Inventory that was launched in 2004 provides credible and up-to-date information about all forests of Latvia irrespective of the ownership. The data from first three years’ data base of this Project has been used in the present study. The aim of this study was to analyse birch stands in state and private forests concentrating on different aspects: mixture degree, origin of the stand, productivity and quality of the stand. 735 sample plots were selected from the database for the analysis. The proportion of the birch stands in the private forests was slightly higher than in the state forests. There were more mixed stands in the state forests than in the private ones. The standing volume was higher in the mixed stands while the opposite was true for the current annual volume increment of birch. The main regeneration method in both the state and private birch stands was natural regeneration from seed. Artificial regeneration was used only rarely in the private birch stands. The productivity did not differ significantly between the state and private forests; the same was true for the quality, expressed by the outcome of veneer logs. The stand quality differed significantly among site types, being the highest in the forests on dry mineral soils and the lowest in the forests on drained peat soils.

The data on chemical composition of groundwater in the boreholes installed in the fields of a swine-breeding complex JSC Kontvainiai irrigated by liquid manure and in the production territory are presented in the article. This complex is situated on the Lithuanian coast, southeast of Klaipeda district. The data covers the period 2001-2005. It was established that the chemical composition of groundwater depends mainly on the soil. Ion sum was 2 times higher in the water of the well which was installed in the soil having a peat layer. The chemical composition of groundwater depended as well on its movement direction. As groundwater moves to the southeast, south and southwest from the fertilized area, the mineralization of water in wells 1 and 4 was the highest – 699 and 728 mg lE-1, respectively.

By using analytical correlations derived as a result of theoretical research, a computer algorithm has been worked out for simulating the functions of the plough body and the forces exerted by soil upon the operating parts, as well as its draft resistance. These correlations allow to determine the draft resistance of the plough depending on the parameters of its body, as well as to evaluate the impact of the physical and mechanical properties of soil, such as friction upon it. The greatest influence upon the draft resistance is exerted by soil hardness, density and slip resistance along the surfaces of the operating parts. The latter is also affected by soil adhesion, which particularly manifests itself in wet clay soils at lower temperatures. It has been clarified that the friction resistance constitutes 46–62% of the total draft resistance of the plough body. The main ways of lowering the friction resistance and the total draft resistance of the plough are the introduction of a more rational design of its body having optimum parameters, decreasing the resistance of the share-mouldboard surface and the values of reactions of the supporting surfaces, as well as the application of antifriction materials and better modes of joining with tractors.

Nine multiparous cows were biopsied twice – in the first and fifth week after parturition in winter 2004/2005 on the Research and Study farm Vecauce of Latvia University of Agriculture. The aim of the research was to reveal distribution of inflammatory factors and apoptosis in the cow’s endometrium in post parturition period. Haematoxylin and eosin were used for routine staining of each sample. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα, w.d. 1:100, Abcam, England), and interleukin 10 (IL10, w.d. 1:400, Abcam, England) were detected immunohistochemically (IMH), and TUNEL method was used for detection of apoptosis. Distribution of these factors and substances was determined semiquantitatively by counting positive structures in visual fields. A significant increase in the total amount of inflammatory cells, as well as in the amount of the TNFα and apoptotic cells in endometrium between the first and fifth week after parturition (p is less than 0.01) was observed. A significant positive correlation (r=0.41; p is less than 0.01) between infiltration of endometrium with neutrophils and with macrophages was detected in the first week after parturition. A mild positive correlation (r=0.52; p is less than 0.01) between neutrophils and lymphocytes, as well as between lymphocytes and macrophages (r=0.35; p is less than 0.01) was found four weeks after parturition. A mild positive correlation (p is less than 0.05) was observed between amount of inflammatory cells and TNFα (r=0.52), and number of apoptotic cells and TNFα (r=0.58). The research suggests that inflammatory factors and apoptosis intensively act during the process of involution in the cows’ endometrium from the first up to the fifth week after parturition. Intensity, amount and activity of these components show individual variations in each case.