High volumes of flowback and produced water are generated everyday as a byproduct of hydraulic fracturing operations and shale gas developments across the United States. Since most shale gas developments are located in semi-arid to arid U.S. regions close to agricultural production, there are many opportunities for reusing these waters as potential alternatives or supplements to fresh water resources for irrigation activities. However, the impacts of high salinity and total organic content of these types of water on crop physiological parameters and plant growth needs to be investigated to determine their utility and feasibility. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the response of switchgrass and rapeseed to treated produced water as an irrigation water source. In this greenhouse study, the influence of produced water at four total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations [1.22, 38.3, 232.2 and 1352.4mg/l] and three total dissolved solids (TDS) levels [400,3,500, and 21,000mg/l] on rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), two relatively salt-tolerant, non-food, biofuel crops, was studied. Seedling emergence, biomass yield, plant height, leaf electrolyte leakage, and plant uptake were evaluated. Irrigation water with the highest salinity and TOC concentration resulted in significantly lower growth health and physiological characteristics of both crop species. The organic content of the produced water had a negative impact on biomass yield and physiological parameters of both species. The results of this study could be valuable for regulators and stakeholders in development of treatment standards in which organic matter should be removed to less than 50mg/l to keep leaf EL (cell damage) to less than 50% and a TOC concentration of less than 5mg/l required to keep a sustainable biomass production rate.

It has been suggested that plants experiencing water deficits offer a higher quality source of nutrition to feeding insects. This hypothesis was investigated by assessing the performance of the cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae), an important pest on Crucifers, on the crop plant oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Aphid growth and reproduction was measured at three controlled air temperatures and four watering regimes to induce water deficits. Plant nutritional quality (soluble nitrogen) and microclimate (leaf temperature), both important for aphid growth and reproduction, were determined. With increasing water deficit both soluble nitrogen content (% dry weight) and leaf temperature (degree C) increased. At all three temperatures development time of the aphid to reproductive age was faster with increasing plant water deficits. Mean relative growth rates and the intrinsic rate of natural increase significantly increased with increasing water deficit at 15 degrees C and 20 degrees C, and 15 degrees , 20 degrees and 25 degrees C respectively. Air temperature, leaf temperature, and soluble nitrogen are important factors on aphid growth and reproduction. The results indicate that during periods of water deficit of oilseed rape plants, aspects of the growth and reproduction of B. brassicae are increased which may result in a faster rate of increase of aphid populations on this crop.