Electrolyzed water (EW) is gaining popularity as a sanitizer in the food industries of many countries. By electrolysis, a dilute sodium chloride solution dissociates into acidic electrolyzed water (AEW), which has a pH of 2 to 3, an oxidationreduction potential of >1,100 mV, and an active chlorine content of 10 to 90 ppm, and basic electrolyzed water (BEW), which has a pH of 10 to 13 and an oxidation-reduction potential of -800 to -900 mV. Vegetative cells of various bacteria in suspension were generally reduced by >6.0 log CFU/ml when AEW was used. However, AEW is a less effective bactericide on utensils, surfaces, and food products because of factors such as surface type and the presence of organic matter. Reductions of bacteria on surfaces and utensils or vegetables and fruits mainly ranged from about 2.0 to 6.0 or 1.0 to 3.5 orders of magnitude, respectively. Higher reductions were obtained for tomatoes. For chicken carcasses, pork, and fish, reductions ranged from about 0.8 to 3.0, 1.0 to 1.8, and 0.4 to 2.8 orders of magnitude, respectively. Considerable reductions were achieved with AEW on eggs. On some food commodities, treatment with BEW followed by AEW produced higher reductions than did treatment with AEW only. EW technology deserves consideration when discussing industrial sanitization of equipment and decontamination of food products. Nevertheless, decontamination treatments for food products always should be considered part of an integral food safety system. Such treatments cannot replace strict adherence to good manufacturing and hygiene practices.

Six ponies were deprived of drinking water and food and compared over 24 hours with nondeprived ponies, ponies deprived of water but with food available, and ponies deprived of food but with water available. When food was eaten during water deprivation, plasma osmolality rose 4% from 284 mOsm/kg to 295 mOsm/kg. During water and food deprivation, plasma osmolality failed to rise, even over 24 hours, and usually fell. Packed cell volume was higher when food but not water was available. Food and/or water deprivation had no significant effect on plasma protein concentration. When food was available, the ponies drank three times more water (13.1 ± 2.1 kg) than when water but not food was available (3.5 ± 1.4 kg). Blood volume changes were calculated from packed cell volume and plasma protein data, and it was found that blood volume did not change significantly with deprivation. Urine volume did not vary with deprivation, but free water clearance changed significantly, falling when food but not water was available. Under these conditions, blood volume is maintained, but the mechanisms are not clear. When deprived of both drinking water and food, ponies failed to develop the hyperosmolality expected under these conditions. Water deprivation while food is available is a more powerful challenge to water and electrolyte homeostasis than deprivation of both food and water.

Food safety issues and increases in food borne illnesses have promulgated the development of new sanitation methods to eliminate pathogenic organisms on foods and surfaces in food service areas. Electrolyzed oxidizing water (EO water) shows promise as an environmentally friendly broad spectrum microbial decontamination agent. EO water is generated by the passage of a dilute salt solution (approximately 1% NaCl) through an electrochemical cell. This electrolytic process converts chloride ions and water molecules into chlorine oxidants (Cl2, HOCl/ClO-). At a near-neutral pH (pH 6.3-6.5), the predominant chemical species is the highly biocidal hypochlorous acid species (HOCl) with the oxidation reduction potential (ORP) of the solution ranging from 800 to 900 mV. The biocidal activity of near-neutral EO water was evaluated at 25 °C using pure cultures of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Enterococcus faecalis. Treatment of these organisms, in pure culture, with EO water at concentrations of 20, 50, 100, and 120 ppm total residual chlorine (TRC) and 10 min of contact time resulted in 100% inactivation of all five organisms (reduction of 6.1-6.7 log10 CFU/mL). Spray treatment of surfaces in food service areas with EO water containing 278-310 ppm TRC (pH 6.38) resulted in a 79-100% reduction of microbial growth. Dip (10 min) treatment of spinach at 100 and 120 ppm TRC resulted in a 4.0-5.0 log10 CFU/mL reduction of bacterial counts for all organisms tested. Dipping (10 min) of lettuce at 100 and 120 ppm TRC reduced bacterial counts of E. coli by 0.24-0.25 log10 CFU/mL and reduced all other organisms by 2.43-3.81 log10 CFU/mL.

The aim of this study was to determine thermal properties of pseudoplastic polysaccharides (guar gum, κ-carrageenan and xanthan gum) which find many applications as food hydrocolloids in food industry. There was an obvious relationship between thermal dependency of heats of fusion of hydrocolloids in powder form and activation parameters of hydrodynamic flow in solutions, respectively. Results of thermal analysis confirmed, that powder samples of hydrocolloids as typical foodstuffs of low moisture content less than 15 w% after room conditioning, exhibited varying ability to bind water as depending on their molecular structure. The peak temperature of the endothermic polysaccharide order-disorder phase transition process was found in the temperature range of 50–85 °C. It was influenced simultaneously by the applied heating rate and the samples moisture content. Studied samples moisture content was ranging between 9–40 w.% as was obtained after different conditioning. Observed reaction enthalpy (ΔH) associated with phase transition and water evaporation (proved by appropriate weight loss of the samples Δmw) was ranging from 140 to 670 J/g. Activation energy (Eₐ) of this process in powder samples was calculated from the kinetic parameters using three kinetic models developed by Friedman, Kissinger and model-free kinetics. The latter kinetic models were compared with the Arrhenius model, which was used to determine Eₐ of polysaccharide solutions on reflecting sensitivity of their molecular structure to the temperature and the solvent. According to the Arrhenius model, there were obtained the highest values of Eₐ for κ-carrageenan solutions, indicating the highest resistance of their molecular structure to temperature. This fact can be related to the observed the lowest value of the reaction enthalpy in the case of powder samples, suggesting that energy obtained during the order-disorder transition to change the carrageenan powder structure is limited. On the other hand, xanthan gum was the least temperature dependent sample; activation energy of xanthan solutions was only in the range of 2–6 kJ/mol. Concurrently, ΔH of xanthan powder was determined as the largest of all samples under study. In general, there was found an indirect relationship between activation energy of the solutions determined by viscometry and reaction enthalpy of the powders determined by thermal analysis. Results of the Arrhenius model also indicate that the energy necessary to promote viscous flow of solutions is higher for hydrocolloids in distilled water rather than in 0.07 M KCl aqueous solutions, suggesting the suppression of the polyelectrolyte effect. In both cases, Eₐ was substantially reduced by application of higher shear rate.

Treatment of fresh fruits and vegetables with electrolyzed water (EW) has been shown to kill or reduce foodborne pathogens. We evaluated the efficacy of EW in killing Escherichia coli O157:H7 on iceberg lettuce, cabbage, lemons, and tomatoes by using washing and/or chilling treatments simulating those followed in some food service kitchens. Greatest reduction levels on lettuce were achieved by sequentially washing with 14-A (amperage) acidic EW (AcEW) for 15 or 30 s followed by chilling in 16-A AcEW for 15 min. This procedure reduced the pathogen by 2.8 and 3.0 log CFU per leaf, respectively, whereas washing and chilling with tap water reduced the pathogen by 1.9 and 2.4 log CFU per leaf. Washing cabbage leaves for 15 or 30 s with tap water or 14-A AcEW reduced the pathogen by 2.0 and 3.0 log CFU per leaf and 2.5 to 3.0 log CFU per leaf, respectively. The pathogen was reduced by 4.7 log CFU per lemon by washing with 14-A AcEW and 4.1 and 4.5 log CFU per lemon by washing with tap water for 15 or 30 s. A reduction of 5.3 log CFU per lemon was achieved by washing with 14-A alkaline EW for 15 s prior to washing with 14-A AcEW for 15 s. Washing tomatoes with tap water or 14-A AcEW for 15 s reduced the pathogen by 6.4 and 7.9 log CFU per tomato, respectively. Application of AcEW using procedures mimicking food service operations should help minimize cross-contamination and reduce the risk of E. coli O157:H7 being present on produce at the time of consumption.

High volumes of flowback and produced water are generated everyday as a byproduct of hydraulic fracturing operations and shale gas developments across the United States. Since most shale gas developments are located in semi-arid to arid U.S. regions close to agricultural production, there are many opportunities for reusing these waters as potential alternatives or supplements to fresh water resources for irrigation activities. However, the impacts of high salinity and total organic content of these types of water on crop physiological parameters and plant growth needs to be investigated to determine their utility and feasibility. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the response of switchgrass and rapeseed to treated produced water as an irrigation water source. In this greenhouse study, the influence of produced water at four total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations [1.22, 38.3, 232.2 and 1352.4mg/l] and three total dissolved solids (TDS) levels [400,3,500, and 21,000mg/l] on rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), two relatively salt-tolerant, non-food, biofuel crops, was studied. Seedling emergence, biomass yield, plant height, leaf electrolyte leakage, and plant uptake were evaluated. Irrigation water with the highest salinity and TOC concentration resulted in significantly lower growth health and physiological characteristics of both crop species. The organic content of the produced water had a negative impact on biomass yield and physiological parameters of both species. The results of this study could be valuable for regulators and stakeholders in development of treatment standards in which organic matter should be removed to less than 50mg/l to keep leaf EL (cell damage) to less than 50% and a TOC concentration of less than 5mg/l required to keep a sustainable biomass production rate.