This publication provides guidance to water-sector decision makers and planners on how to deal with the quality dimension of groundwater resources management in the World Bank's client countries. There is growing evidence of increasing pollution threats to groundwater and some well-documented cases of irreversible damage to important aquifers. This guide has been produced in the belief that groundwater pollution hazard assessment must become an essential part of environmental best practice for water supply utilities. The guide is particularly relevant for the World Bank's Latin American and Caribbean Region, where many countries have initiated major changes to modernize their institutional and legal framework for water resources management, but may not yet have considered groundwater at the same level as surface water, because of lack of awareness and knowledge of groundwater issues and policy options.

A contaminação por metais pesados em ecossistemas aquáticos pode ser avaliada a partir do monitoramento da concentração dos elementos químicos em sedimento, água e macrófitas aquáticas. Neste estudo foi avaliada a concentração de metais e P em sedimento, água e macrófitas aquáticas em represas, visando analisar níveis de contaminação e a transferência biogeoquímica no ecossistema aquático diante do uso diferenciado dos seus entornos. O estudo foi realizado em duas represas inseridas na microbacia da Eqüídeocultura do Campus da Universidade Federal de Viçosa. Na zona litorânea de cada represa foram coletadas amostras de sedimento, água e macrófitas aquáticas no final dos períodos, seco (out/2003) e chuvoso (abr/2004). A amostragem foi estratificada com casualização de 30 repetições por represa. Os metais foram extraídos por ataque triácido (HClO4 (conc.) + HF(conc.) + H2SO4 (conc.)) no sedimento e também por diferentes concentrações de HCl. A extração dos metais nas amostras de água foi com 0,5 mL de ácido nítrico concentrado para 50 mL de amostra de água e digestão em chapa quente. Nas plantas, a digestão foi nitro-perclórica (3:1 v/v). A concentração dos metais nos extratos foi determinada em Espectrometria de Plasma Acoplado Indutivamente (ICP) e o P em fotocolorímetro pelo método de ácido ascórbico. Para a análise do potencial de acumulação (ΨAc) considerou-se a relação entre a concentração dos metais nas plantas inteiras e os valores normais para plantas aquáticas de ambientes não contaminados. A transferência biogeoquímica foi dada pelo fator de concentração (FC), sendo a razão entre a concentração dos metais nas macrófitas aquáticas e a concentração do elemento no ambiente. Para efeito de tratamento estatístico os dados foram organizados em esquema fatorial no delineamento inteiramente casualizado e a ANOVA desenvolvida em parcelas subdivididas e sub-subdivididas de acordo com as características de cada componente do ecossistema aquático. As médias foram comparadas pelo teste de Tukey (p ≤ 0,05) usando o programa WinStat. 2.11 e a análise de correlação de Pearson entre os metais extraídos em HCl, COT, ADA, argila e silte foi realizada usando o programa SAEG 9.0, considerando apenas valores ≥ 0,75 pelo teste T a 1 %. As represas apresentam potencialmente formas não pontual de contaminação nos seus entornos devido ao uso de calcários e fertilizantes, além da produção de estercos pelos eqüídeos. A diferença da composição florística entre as represas pode ser explicada pelo índice de estado trófico para fósforo. A acumulação dos metais apresentou comportamento diferenciado em relação aos níveis de concentração entre amostras de sedimento, água e plantas. Os sedimentos não estão contaminados em relação à maioria dos metais. No entanto, a concentração de metais na água e plantas foi acima dos valores considerados normais em ambientes não poluídos para todos os metais analisados. Salvinia auriculata, Eleocharis obtusetrigona, Eichhornia crassipes e Pistia stratiotes apresentaram para a maioria dos metais, médias superiores às concentrações normais em ambientes não contaminados, sendo consideradas acumuladoras. Existe diferença significativa para a acumulação dos metais analisados entre grupos ecológicos vegetais distintos, submetidos às mesmas condições ambientais. Em estudos de monitoramento da contaminação de metais pesados em ecossistemas aquáticos deve ser considerado a sazonalidade como um importante fator de avaliação. | Heavy metals contamination in aquatic ecosystems can be assessed by monitoring the concentration of chemical elements in sediments, water and aquatic macrophytes. In this study, metals and P concentration in sediments, water and aquatic plants in small dams, were evaluated. The aim was to analyze contamination levels and the biogeochemistry transfer in the aquatic ecosystems from different land use of surrounding areas. The study was perfomed in two dams in Equideocultura watershed of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa. In the coastal areas of each dam, samples were collected of sediments, water and aquatic macrophytes in the end of dry season (oct/2003) and rainy season (apr/2004). The samplings were stratified with 30 replications randomized at each dam. The metals were extracted by triacid attack in the sediments (HClO4 (conc.) + HF(conc.) + H2SO4 (conc.)) and different HCl concentrations. The metals extraction in water samples were done by 0,5 mL of HCl in 50 mL of water samples, subsequentially digested on hot plate. In plants, the digestion was done using perchloric-nitric acid (3:1 v/v). The metal concentrations in extracts were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrophotometry and P by photocolorimetry using the ascorbic acid method. The biogeochemistry transfer was estimated by concentration factor (FC), being the ratio between the metals concentration in aquatic macrophytes and the concentration in the environment. For statistical analysis, were organize in a factorial scheme in developed by split plot and split-split plot design in agreement with each component characteristic of the aquatic ecosystem. The averages were compared by the Tukey test (p ≤ 0.05) using WinStat program and Pearson correlation analysis were calculated for HCl extracted metals, total organic carbon (TOC), water dispersible clay (ADA), clay and silt contents were correlated using the SAEG 9.0 program, only considering r values ≥ 0.75 by 1 % T test. The dams showed a potential for dispersed contamination of the surrounding areas, due to the use of limestone and fertilizers, besides horse manures. The differences in floristic composition between the dams can be explained by the trofic state index for phosphorus. The metal accumulation showed a constrating behavior in relation to the concentration levels in sediments, water and plant samples. Sediments are not contaminated regarding most metals; however, the water and plant metal concentration were higher than the normal values for unpolluted environment, for all analyzed metals. Salvinia auriculata, Eleocharis obtusetrigona, Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes showed higher means of metals concentrations compared with concentration from uncontaminated sites, being considered bioaccumulators. Significant differences were observed for metals accumulation analyzed for distinct plant ecological groups, submitted to the same environmental conditions. In monitoring studies of heavy metals contamination in aquatic ecosystems, seasonality must be considered as an important factor.

Los principales problemas medioambientales asociados a la contaminación por nitrógeno inorgánico en los ecosistemas acuáticos son: (1) acidificación de ríos y lagos con baja o reducida alcalinidad; (2) eutrofización de las aguas dulces y marinas (con el problema adicional de las algas tóxicas); y (3) toxicidad directa de los compuestos nitrogenados para los animales acuáticos. Además, la contaminación por nitrógeno inorgánico podría inducir efectos perjudiciales sobre la salud humana. En base a diferentes criterios de calidad del agua, consideramos que niveles máximos de nitrógeno inorgánico disuelto dentro del rango 0,5-1,0 mg NID/l (o mejor aún de nitrógeno total dentro del rango 0,5-1,0 mg NT/l) pueden ser adecuados para prevenir los procesos de acidificación y eutrofización en los ecosistemas acuáticos (al menos por nitrógeno) y, al mismo tiempo, proteger a los animales acuáticos (y también a las personas) de los efectos tóxicos de los compuestos nitrogenados NH3+, NH4+, HNO2+, NO2-, NO3-. Este rango de concentraciones no sería aplicable a aquellos ecosistemas que, de manera natural, presentan niveles altos de nitrógeno. Concluimos que los problemas comentados pueden agudizarse en aquellas regiones del mundo (por ejemplo, en el sur de España) donde se esperan disminuciones de los recursos hídricos y aumentos de las temperaturas ambientales como consecuencia del cambio climático en curso. | The major environmental problems related to inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems are: (1) acidification of lakes and rivers with low or reduced alkalinity; (2) eutrophication of fresh and marine waters (with the additional problem of toxic algae); and (3) direct toxicity of nitrogenous compounds to aquatic animals. Additionally, inorganic nitrogen pollution could induce adverse effects on human health. On the basis of different water quality criteria, we consider that maximum levels of dissolved inorganic nitrogen within the range 0.5-1.0 mg DIN/l (or even better of total nitrogen within the range 0.5-1.0 mg TN/l) may be suitable to prevent the processes of acidification and eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems (at least by nitrogen) and, at the same time, to protect aquatic animals (and also humans) against the toxic effects of inorganic nitrogenous compounds NH3+, NH4+, HNO2+, NO2-, NO3-. This range of concentrations would not be applicable to those aquatic ecosystems with naturally high nitrogen levels. We conclude that the commented problems can become acute in those world’s regions (for example, in southern Spain) where reductions in water resources and rises in environmental temperatures are expected to occur as a consequence of the current climate change.

Due to the worrisome water context at domestic and global level, it is imperative to establish actions for protecting and conserving aquatic ecosystems and water resources in Peru, such as establishing a comprehensive assessment of water quality. In this context, bio indicators, especially benthic macroinvertebrates, represent an important tool for efficient water assessment. This essay analyzes how the use of these bio indicators is being managed at international level and within the framework of the National Environmental Management System (SNGA) of Peru, with special emphasis on the National Water Resources Management System (SNGRH), since one of its objectives is to achieve an adequate management of water resources in the country, to contribute to the conservation, preservation and recovery of water and its associated goods, and to have the conservation and protection of water quality as one of its purposes. In this way, it was evident that these bio indicators are being considered in some of the SNGA management instruments. However, in some of these, their use is not very developed or is limited because they do not have a strong legal basis, since they have not yet been incorporated in the regulatory framework of water resources and, therefore, in the protocols that address their use. | Debido al preocupante contexto del agua a nivel nacional y mundial, resulta imperativo establecer acciones para la protección y conservación de los ecosistemas acuáticos y recursos hídricos en el Perú, como instaurar una evaluación integral de la calidad del agua. En este contexto, los bioindicadores, en especial los macroinvertebrados bentónicos, representan una importante herramienta para una eficiente evaluación del agua. En este ensayo se analizó cómo se viene manejando el uso de estos bioindicadores a nivel internacional y en el marco del Sistema Nacional de Gestión Ambiental (SNGA) del Perú, con especial énfasis en el Sistema Nacional de Gestión de Recursos Hídricos (SNGRH), pues este tiene entre sus objetivos lograr una adecuada gestión de los recursos hídricos en el país, así como contribuir en la conservación, preservación y la recuperación del agua y sus bienes asociados, además de tener como una de sus finalidades la conservación y protección de la calidad de la misma. De esta forma se evidenció que estos bioindicadores sí se vienen considerando en algunos de los instrumentos de gestión de los sistemas que conforman el SNGA, sin embargo, en algunos de estos su uso no está muy desarrollado o se encuentra limitado al no tener una fuerte base legal; mientras que en el caso específico del SNGRH, el uso de bioindicadores es incipiente en las estrategias y acciones de sus principales instrumentos de planificación, siendo aún ausente su incorporación en el marco normativo de los recursos hídricos, y por ende en los protocolos que aborden su utilización.

Hoy en día ha ido aumentando la necesidad de encontrar procesos que permitan obtener agua limpia, debido a actividades de carácter antrópico que poco a poco han afectado la calidad del recurso tal como menciona Greenpeace Colombia en su página web (Greenpeace, 2016) y como lo menciona la Secretaria Distrital de Ambiente y el Acueducto en un documento estructurado por la Pontificia Universidad javeriana denominado como “Calidad del sistema hídrico de Bogota”,donde resalta que a pesar de la importancia que tiene este recurso para el hombre tan solo en la última década se ha empezado a generar una preocupación, debido a la escasez que se ha presentado en los últimos periodos. Según una evaluación realizada para un proyecto por la GIWA1 ([GIWA], 2001) indicó que la presión constante de las actividades humanas viene deteriorando drásticamente los ecosistemas acuáticos y como resultado se tiene que en promedio para el año 2020 no será nada fácil la accesibilidad al agua potable, adicional a ello se suman los problemas de salud. Dentro de los problemas de salud identificados por problemas de aguas se encuentra su relación con el aluminio, cromo y coliformes como se resalta a continuación: El aluminio forma parte del 8 % (aproximadamente) de la corteza terrestre, por lo tanto el ser humano se encuentra expuesto a este metal por la presencia que hay en el medio ambiente, aunque este no es el único medio de exposición debido a que se ha industrializado, hace parte de muchos productos, tales como: los envases, aditivos para alimentos, cosméticos, utensilios de cocina, textiles, colorantes, desodorantes, medicamentos entre otros. Aunque aún no se tenga un estimado de lo perjudicial que puede ser para la salud de los seres vivos, se prevee que en el futuro pueda causar severas consecuencias. | Título de la investigación Problema de investigación Descripción del problema Formulación del problema Objetivos de la investigación Objetivo general Objetivos específicos Justificación y delimitación Justificación Delimitación Marco de referencia de la investigación Marco teórico Marco legal Diseño metodológico Análisis e interpretación de resultados Evaluación De Eficiencia Económica Conclusiones Recomendaciones Referencias (bibliografía) | Pregrado | Tecnólogo en Desarrollo Ambiental | Tecnología en Desarrollo Ambiental

Urbanization process represents a significant threat, especially to aquatic ecosystems. Changes in riparian vegetation and water body structure, as well as the introduction of exotic species and the contact of wild animals and humans, are some of the impacts faced in urban areas. Because of these changes in the environment, wild species may be affected. Therefore, the main goals of this study are: i) to evaluate the population parameters of three urban freshwater turtles, one native (Phrynops geoffroanus) and two exotic species (Trachemys dorbigni dorbigni, Trachemys scripta elegans); ii) analyze its home range, habitat selection and maximum distance ranged by each species; iii) identify which urban features may influence its movements patterns. Turtles were monitored between July 2016 and August 2018 in an urban park in the state of Paraná, Brazil, and a capture-recapture method and radio telemetry was used to monitor populations during this period. Both native and alien species presented similar population parameters, the home range varied according to the data collection method and estimator used (MCP100 and KDE95), and turtles selected habitats with urban characteristics (mainly those associated with human presence). Our study is the first in Brazil to analyze the population ecology of native and alien species of freshwater turtles that are coexisting. Long-term monitoring of the three species should be considered by the Brazilian authorities in order to avoid local extinction of native species and to control the alien species invasion. In addition, environmental education activities will help people to concern them about the damage that introduction of exotic species (by releasing pets) may cause to ecosystems, even in urban areas. | El proceso de urbanización plantea una amenaza significativa para los ecosistemas, especialmente para los acuáticos. Los cambios en la vegetación ribereña y la estructura del cuerpo de agua, así como la introducción de especies exóticas y el contacto de la vida silvestre y humanos, son algunos de los impactos que se enfrentan en las zonas urbanas. Como resultado de los cambios en el ambiente, las especies silvestres pueden verse afectadas. Por lo tanto, los objetivos principales de este estudio son: i) evaluar los parámetros de población de tres tortugas de agua dulce urbana, una nativa (Phrynops geoffroanus) y dos especies exóticas (Trachemys dorbigni dorbigni, Trachemys scripta elegans); ii) analizar su área de campeo, selección de hábitat y distancia máxima recorrida por cada especie; iii) identificar qué características urbanas pueden influir en su patrón de movimiento. Recolectamos tortugas entre Julio de 2016 y Agosto de 2018 en un parque urbano en el estado de Paraná, Brasil, y utilizamos el método de capturarecaptura y radio telemetría para monitorear las poblaciones durante este período. Tanto las especies nativas como las exóticas tenían parámetros de población similares, el área de campeo variaba según el método de recolección de datos y el estimador utilizado (MCP100 y KDE95), y las tortugas seleccionan hábitats con características urbanas (principalmente con presencia humana). Nuestro estudio es el primero en Brasil en analizar la ecología poblacional de especies nativas y exóticas de tortugas de agua dulce coexistentes. Las autoridades brasileñas deberían considerar el monitoreo a largo plazo de las tres especies para prevenir la extinción local de especies nativas y controlar las especies exóticas. Además, las actividades de educación ambiental ayudarán a las personas a preocuparse por el daño que la introducción de nuevas personas (liberar mascotas) puede causar en los ecosistemas, incluso en áreas urbanas.

The Andean region is characterized by important intramontane alluvial and glacial valleys; a typical example is the Tarqui alluvial plain, Ecuador. Such valley plains are densely populated and/or very attractive for urban and infrastructural development. Their aquifers offer opportunities for the required water resources. Groundwater/surface-water (GW–SW) interaction generally entails recharge to or discharge from the aquifer, dependent on the hydraulic connection between surface water and groundwater. Since GW–SW interaction in Andean catchments has hardly been addressed, the objectives of this study are to investigate GW–SW interaction in the Tarqui alluvial plain and to understand the role of the morphology of the alluvial valley in the hydrological response and in the hydrological connection between hillslopes and the aquifers in the valley floor. This study is based on extensive field measurements, groundwater-flow modelling and the application of temperature as a groundwater tracer. Results show that the morphological conditions of a valley influence GW–SW interaction. Gaining and losing river sections are observed in narrow and wide alluvial valley sections, respectively. Modelling shows a strong hydrological connectivity between the hillslopes and the alluvial valley; up to 92 % of recharge of the alluvial deposits originates from lateral flow from the hillslopes. The alluvial plain forms a buffer or transition zone for the river as it sustains a gradual flow from the hills to the river. Future land-use planning and development should include concepts discussed in this study, such as hydrological connectivity, in order to better evaluate impact assessments on water resources and aquatic ecosystems.

Gutiérrez Acuña, S.. (2019). Aspectos poblacionales y ecológicos de los camarones de agua dulce (Decapoda: Caridea): como aporte para la gestión del ecosistema acuático en los ríos Parismina y Dos Novillos, Limón, Costa Rica. (Tesis de Licenciatura). Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica. | Costa Rica registra 20 especies de camarones dulceacuícolas, de las cuales encontramos 13 en la vertiente Caribe y todos son organismos anfídromos. Es importante entender, conocer y utilizar datos del sistema acuático para la toma de decisiones en programas de manejo y conservación de los recursos naturales. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo determinar aspectos poblacionales y ecológicos de los camarones de agua dulce en los ríos Parismina y Dos Novillos (vertiente Caribe de Costa Rica), para apoyar futuras medidas de manejo relacionadas a conectividad fluvial. Para el estudio se establecieron 11 puntos de muestreo, ocho sitios en el río Parismina y tres sitios en el río Dos Novillos. Se realizó un muestreo por mes, durante diez meses en el año 2015. Se utilizó en las partes altas y medias el método de electropesca mientras que en las partes bajas se utilizaron trampas con cebo de coco fermentado. Se realizaron gráficos descriptivos para visualizar la composición y abundancia de las especies de camarones por río y por zona altitudinal. Se evaluó la composición, abundancia, frecuencia y distribución por zonas altitudinales y por mes de las especies de mayor frecuencia (M. acanthurus, M. heterochirus y M. olfersii) durante el periodo de estudio. También se evaluó la influencia de factores abióticos con la presencia de las especies de camarones más frecuentes del estudio. Se registraron 519 individuos de cuatro especies en el río Parismina y 517 individuos de tres especies en el río Dos Novillos. La especie de mayor talla y abundancia en la zona alta fue M. heterochirus y M. acanthurus en la zona baja. La frecuencia de presencia de las tres especies en estudio (M. acanthurus, M. heterochirus y M. olfersii) fue similar a través de los meses de muestreo. La proporción entre machos y hembras se mantuvo similar en cada mes y significativamente diferente entre estratos altitudinales para las especies M. heterochirus y M. olfersii en ambos ríos. M. acanthurus no presentó una diferencia significativa en la proporción de sexos por cada mes. Macrobrachium heterochirus obtuvo mayor cantidad de hembras en agosto para el río Dos Novillos y en julio para el río Parismina. M. olfersii obtuvo la mayor cantidad de hembras ovígeras en abril para ambos ríos. Macrobrachium acanthurus presentó la mayor cantidad de hembras ovígeras en abril y julio y disminuyó en agosto a octubre. La probabilidad de presencia de M. heterochirus está influenciada por las variables de velocidad de corriente y caudal del río. Para M. olfersii no se encontró relación con ninguna de las variables medidas. La probabilidad de presencia de M. acanthurus se relacionó con la presencia de los cloruros y salinidad. Por ùltimo, los camarones de agua dulce se pueden considerar un buen indicador de conectividad fluvial, con lo cual una vez realizada una línea base, se le puede dar seguimiento para identificar los cambios a través del monitoreo de la condición del río. | Costa Rica registers 20 species of freshwater shrimp, of which we find 13 on the Caribbean slope and all of them are amphidromous organisms. It is important to understand, know and use data from the aquatic system for decision making in natural resource management and conservation programs. The objective of this work is to determine population and ecological aspects of freshwater shrimp in the Parismina and Dos Novillos rivers (Caribbean slope of Costa Rica), to support future management measures related to river connectivity. For the study, 11 sampling points were established, eight sites on the Parismina River and three sites on the Dos Novillos River. A sampling was carried out per month, for ten months in 2015. The electro-fishing method was used in the upper and middle parts, while in the lower parts, traps with fermented coconut bait were used. Descriptive graphs were made to visualize the composition and abundance of the shrimp species by river and by altitude zone. The composition, abundance, frequency and distribution by altitudinal zones and by month of the most frequent species (M. acanthurus, M. heterochirus and M. olfersii) during the study period were evaluated. The influence of abiotic factors with the presence of the most frequent shrimp species in the study was also evaluated. 519 individuals of four species were recorded in the Parismina river and 517 individuals of three species in the Dos Novillos river. The species with the largest size and abundance in the high zone was M. heterochirus and M. acanthurus in the low zone. The frequency of presence of the three species under study (M. acanthurus, M. heterochirus and M. olfersii) was similar throughout the months of sampling. The ratio between males and females remained similar in each month and significantly different between altitudinal strata for the species M. heterochirus and M. olfersii in both rivers. M. acanthurus did not present a significant difference in the proportion of sexes for each month. Macrobrachium heterochirus obtained the highest number of females in August for the Dos Novillos river and in July for the Parismina river. M. olfersii obtained the highest number of ovigerous females in April for both rivers. Macrobrachium acanthurus had the highest number of ovigerous females in April and July and decreased in August to October. The probability of the presence of M. heterochirus is influenced by the variables of current speed and river flow. For M. olfersii, no relationship was found with any of the measured variables.The probability of the presence of M. acanthurus was related to the presence of chlorides and salinity. Finally, freshwater shrimp can be considered a good indicator of river connectivity, with which once a baseline has been made, it can be followed to identify changes through monitoring the condition of the river. | Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica | Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas

The close link between land use and groundwater has long been recognised, but not widely translated into integrated policy and management practices. Common understanding is needed to facilitate cross-sector dialogue on governance. The process of land-use planning advocated by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (UN-SDG) 15 for 2030, coupled with the launch of an independent global land-use monitoring initiative known as Land Matrix, appear to provide windows of opportunity for hydrogeologists to make specific proposals for the inclusion of groundwater protection needs in national land-use plans and the consideration of groundwater sustainability threats from major land deals and contracts. Ignoring the groundwater dimension in land-use management can result in high long-run costs for drinking-water supply and aquatic ecosystems. Thus, coordinated governance based on a coherent set of land-use sustainability criteria, aimed at enhancing both the food and groundwater harvest, is crucial for the future.

Groundwater plays a fundamental yet often little appreciated role in supporting economic development and human well-being in both urban and rural environments, as well as supporting many aquatic ecosystems in Africa. Thus, groundwater has high relevance to the development and well-being of Africa, if adequately assessed and sustainably exploited. Whilst the potential for groundwater-resources development continues to be reported in the literature, a quantitative understanding of these issues remains poor. The objective of this paper is to highlight the main groundwater issues and problems in Africa and the current and expected opportunities for sustainable groundwater management. This will be done through the review of existing knowledge of groundwater resources and of ongoing and planned groundwater management programs and initiatives. Groundwater resources in Africa face increasing threat of pollution from urbanisation, industrial development, agricultural and mining activities, and from poor sanitation practices and over-exploitation due to increasing demand to meet human and agricultural needs. However, despite the existence of a number of groundwater management challenges, groundwater resources in Africa are still generally under-developed and can meet the various needs in a sustainable manner if better managed. Thus, strategies to ensure sustainable development and management of groundwater resources need to be put in place. These include establishment of groundwater monitoring systems, understanding of the groundwater–aquatic ecosystem relationships, management of transboundary aquifers, addressing climate-change impacts on groundwater, assessing the impact of increased pumping from various types of aquifers on sustainability of groundwater abstraction, and capacity building in groundwater management.