The purpose of this article is to establish the social and/or economic impact of the implemented Cohesion Fund (CF) projects on development of regions of Latvia. Three tasks are addressed to achieve this goal - to study CF projects by regions; analyse distribution of funding by sectors of economy and their compliance with CF objectives; to draft recommendations for improving the absorption of funds and achieving the goals of the European Union (EU) regional policy. The article consists of three chapters, an introduction and conclusions. New scientifically grounded recommendations are developed for improving socio-economic impact of the CF in Latvia. The key recommendation relates to the EU involvement in dealing with problems of increase in costs, namely - by proving that the increase in costs affects several of the new EU member states or Community regions, the EC will have to take part in addressing the problem. Further assessment of the socio-economic impact of the CF on development of regions of Latvia requires additional research.

In the EU funds planning period 2004 - 2006 in total 1141.44 million Euros have been allocated to Latvian national economy. The most part of financing was assigned to the development of infrastructure, development of entrepreneurship and innovation and human resources. Analysing division of the Structural Funds allocation between the regions, most part of the Structural Funds financing of 2004 - 2006 - 49.52% from all the financing has been allocated to the Riga region. That points to unequal division because Riga region has three times bigger Gross Domestic Product then Latgale region. Direct link to the social economic indexes indicating the development of the region and attracted EU funds financing can be surveyed - most developed regions have received most important part of the financing and underdeveloped regions the smallest part. EU funds regional support has to be planned and there should be regional development policy in EU funds distribution. Possible means to endorse the development of the undeveloped regions of the country by support programmes include creating specific support programmes, giving larger aid intensity for projects from regions, consultation work in project development and implementation and other ways.

Business activity of an enterprise is almost inconceivable without planning. Therefore today there are many discussions about the importance of activity planning of the enterprise and forecasting of the resources, necessary to reach the set tasks. For this reason the scientists and practicians offer to implement the budgeting system in the enterprises. This paper introduces the new budgeting model - Activity-Based Budgeting (ABB) model. It also contains the survey of advantages of this model and its applicability in theoretical aspect. The key objective of this paper is to present Activity-Based Budgeting (ABB) as an important means of planning and coordination of activity of the agricultural enterprise (or any other type of an enterprise). After performance of analysis of the main principles of Activity-Based Budgeting (ABB) model the reasoned conclusions can be drawn that application of this model in the agricultural enterprises could be the alternative means against the variable and changing economical and business conditions. It should be emphasized that contrarily to the traditional budgeting models; ABB can help to establish the connections between the incurred costs and the company processes. The paper contains ABB analysis based upon the scientific studies and the fragments of practical application of the model.

After a 16-m high dam was constructed and a 297-ha pond was arranged in the River Šušvė nearby Angiriai in 1980, the previous natural flow regime of the river has changed: 15500000 m3 of water accumulated above the dam is not discharged via a natural bed, but through two 1.5x1.5 m bottom orifices, and flood discharges (up to Q1% = 296 m3 sE-1) are directed into the lower reach through a 16-m high shaft spillway of floods. Such arrangement of the Angiriai dam ensured it to become an essential obstacle for migrating fish. In 2000, after the arrangement and operation of Angiriai hydro-electric power station, the water regime downstream the dam has been changed and new hydrological pulses as well as ecosystem biodiversity are to be adapted. Thus, the operation of Angiriai HPS on the River Šušvė generating hydroelectric power can have adverse effect on the river habitats and hydro ecological connectivity. To evaluate the effect, the eco-hydraulic water regime measurements in 2005 in a lower stretch with and without turbines operating were made. The study results showed that artificial water levels fluctuation (≈ 4 m hrE-1) induced by Angiriai hydro-electric power station as well as the discharge flowing through the bottom orifices due to high velocities (13–14 m sE-1) and temperature differences could create stressful situations for young fish in the lower bank. According to the data of soil texture of the Šušvė River, the bed armoring process is going on below the Angiriai HPS is quasistable and no impact of HPS operation is found.

The paper deals with monitoring results of nitrate nitrogen (NO3 --N) run-off in three small agricultural catchments in Latvia (Berze, Mellupite, and Vienziemite) during the period of 1995 - 2007. Continuous flow measurements and water sampling were carried out in two scales - catchment and drainage field. Water quality data was analyzed statistically to identify outliers at various intensity agricultural production systems. The results indicated that with increase of agriculture intensity outlying values are higher and scattered from the rest of the data set thereby the risk of NO3 --N leaching is higher. It can be explained by application of different rates of organic and inorganic fertilization. To analyze water discharge data, cumulative distribution was used. The results show that main part of the water discharge is observed from late autumn to spring, whereas in summer period it is low and stable. The dependence of NO3 --N concentrations on the discharge is expressed by Spearman's correlation coefficient - at catchment scale it is 0.37 in Vienziemite site, 0.39 - in Berze, and 0.44 in Mellupite. Calculated correlation coefficients are statistically reliable.

This article gives a review of modern networking technologies and standards used in the development of distributed control systems. Study of related scientific and professional literature has been performed, and basing on it a multi-level model of digital network structure in the field of small-scale autonomous combined power systems has been proposed. Necessity of integration of autonomous powering into SmartHouse systems and related distributed computing and networking issues are reflected as well. As there is a wide variety of industrial networking standards used, this review covers and groups more frequently used protocols and stacks from the view of OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model and layers of industrial automation. The aim of this article is to give a reference-point in the development of distributed control systems in the field of small-scale autonomous power supply and integration of them in SmartHouse systems.

The Bologna Process started in 1999, aiming to elaborate an overarching framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area. The doctoral level as the third cycle was introduced for promoting closer links between research and higher education. The implementation of doctoral programme of pedagogy has strengthened the area of educational research. The general goal of the doctoral education is to provide doctoral students with an in-depth knowledge of the field of research and the capability to produce novel scientific knowledge independently. The aim of the paper is to characterize the realisation of teachers' education as doctoral training in the context of Bologna Process strategies. The seminar in Salzburg set up ten basic principles concerning doctoral education. Learning outcomes in the field of research training are one of the basic building blocks of European higher education quality. The quality of teachers' education on doctoral studies level is depending on advanced learning outcomes of an individual. The goals of doctoral education are increasing internationalisation, co-operation between academies, promoting academic careers and establishing post-doctoral positions. The investigation about research training was carried out at Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy doctoral study programme in pedagogy. A questionnaire about aspects of doctoral studies was developed for obtaining information for analysis and was given to teachers (doctoral students). Respondents were asked to complete the questionnaire focusing on learning outcomes. The estimation of the results was made summing the answers, and the percentage was calculated. Feedback from doctoral students plays an important role in the further development of the curricula.

The objectives of this study were to (1) describe the economic agents of the chain and their commercial and legal relationships; (2) identify the articulations between links, technological levels, indicators of efficiency, installed capacity (scale), and degrees of occupation; (3) characterize and estimate the costing and pricing structures, and the generation of value in different links of the chain; (4) identify those critical costs that can be modified through technological interventions, policy, or other activity; (5) determine the biological and economic risk factors throughout the chain; and (6) develop a methodology to identify and estimate the costs and benefits in each segment and evaluate the generation of value throughout the beef chain. Data at the farm level was obtained from a national livestock survey (CORFOGA 2005b), which provided data on production systems, inventories, productivity, culling, and labor. In addition, surveys were carried out in different segments: (1) auction houses, (2) slaughterhouses, (3) butcher shops, and (4) supermarkets. The aim of these surveys was to describe behavior, determine risks and costs, and identify problems. The weak dynamics of livestock production in Costa Rica are reflected in unsatisfactory productivity indicators. The annual gross income was estimated as US$44/ha for cow-calf operations, $126/ha for dual purpose (including income from milk sales), and $135/ha for fattening activities. Such income rates are considered extremely low, if one uses as reference the commercial value of land allocated to livestock production (ranging between $1000 and $2000/ha). The aforementioned biological inefficiencies, combined with high land costs, impede the recovery of opportunity costs for the capital invested in land, thus making beef production uncompetitive. The cow-calf operation, with its low productivity, remunerates family labor with wages below the legal minimum. On the assumption that the only cash cost is that of labor, cow-calf farms pay family workers at a wage that is equivalent to 60% of the legal minimum. Auctions present relatively good profits per event. However, when these profits are analyzed on a calendar-day basis, they are unattractive because of the low use of installed capacity. One strategy that would usefully improve the efficiency of the auction system in Costa Rica is its integration to reduce the number of fixed operational costs or encourage sharing of these houses so that administrative and operational personnel are rotated among the several existing auctions, taking advantage of the fact that they differ in their days of operation. This scheme would help reduce fixed costs and the commission collected without affecting profits, thus improving efficiency in this link of the chain. However, this option is not easy to implement, as auctions are run by private operators, whose various interests do not always coincide. The industrial sector formed by rural and industrial slaughterhouses shows a low occupation of installed capacity, resulting in high operational costs and low labor efficiency. The total operational costs of slaughtering and dressing are estimated as being between US$32 and $66 per animal. If the estimated unit costs are compared with the rates charged per slaughtered animal (between $15 and $23), then we have to conclude that rural slaughterhouses work at a loss and that industrial slaughterhouses cover their operational costs with processing services and the very small profit margins from sales of byproducts. The best performance in terms of efficiency and profitability is found in the retail sector of butchers and supermarkets. The rate of profits, expressed as the fraction of the final price paid by the consumer that remains in the butcher’s hands as remuneration of his work, ranges widely between 3% and 40%, with an average of 32%. If these profit rates are compared with those of other retail businesses, which are about 8%, then this type of activity presents excellent profit margins with relatively low risk. If, in addition, we take into account that this sector also offers the consumer a broad range of meat cuts from other animals such as pork and chicken, and processed meats, then profit margins are still higher. The value generated throughout the chain, as a percentage of the final value of the young steer at retail price according to activity, is distributed as follows: fattener (34%), retailer (33%), breeder (19%), slaughterhouse (7%), transporter (6%), and auction house (1%). As observed, the distribution of value throughout the beef chain is totally inequitable and incongruent with the level of individual risk confronted by the actors who form it. The inequity observed in the distribution of added value reflects a clear dominant position in the market of some actors of the chain, which enables them to capture a very high fraction of the profits. The value generated in the chain, adjusted for operational time in each link, ranges between US$0.28/animal per day for the breeder and $45.85/animal per day for the butcher. Thus, the highest proportion of the total added value concentrates on the final link of the chain. The butcher or supermarket obtains, on the basis of one animal in the same unit of time, 164 times more value that the breeder located in the first link of the chain. The latter has to confront biological and economic risks not covered by insurance policies, whereas retailers may mitigate risks through insurance policies for their raw materials, equipment, and infrastructure. The competitiveness of the beef chain is the aggregate of the efficiency and productivity of all the links that form it. In a situation where, in the final segment, the demand for beef is low and weakly dynamic, then economic signs of modernization and the technological change it promotes, are not being generated in other components of the chain, particularly in the first link of production. This, in turn, results in a vicious cycle, generating low productivity and lack of competitiveness. To promote technological change, efficiency, and competitiveness in the value chain for beef in Costa Rica, we propose the following six recommendations: 1. That successful experiences of other chains such as that of poultry be analyzed and learned from to identify strategies that would increase the efficiency of the beef chain as a whole. 2. That strategies for promoting the milk production of breeding cows be developed to increase family income, as remuneration of labor is currently below the minimum wage. This option would be viable only in localities where a milk market exists. That livestock producer funds [a livestock producer fund consists of granting livestock in company to produce meat, provided that the producer concerned has adequate pastures for this purpose on his farm] be created as mechanisms to develop social capital, reduce transaction costs, and help improve the chain’s productivity and profitability. These organizations would bring together the different classes of the chain and favor synergies in the interaction of public and private actors. 3. That incentives be created to promote the large-scale adoption of already available improved forage species, as most of the problem of low livestock productivity originates in poor and deficient feed. This strategy would emphasize feeding during dry seasons, thereby minimizing seasonal weight losses in the national herd and improving the profitability of farms. 4. That a carcass classification system be established, based on quality and price that would permit differentiating supplies for different segments of the market. 5. That consumer education be promoted on the health benefits of beef, forms of preparation, and differentiating between cuts, uses, and qualities of beef products.

Pig production has increasingly become an important activity, especially among smallholder farmers in Uganda in the past three decades as evidenced by a dramatic rise in pig population from 0.19 to 3.2 million. This is linked to the rise in demand for pork due to changes in preferences. Per capita consumption of pork has been estimated at 3.4 kg/person/year representing a ten-fold increase in the last 30 years. Pigs are important assets for the poor smallholders in Uganda generating income for meeting planned and emergency household financial needs. Despite its importance, the smallholder pig systems are faced with a number of productivity and market related constraints ranging from diseases, poor nutrition and poorly organized markets. Strong growth opportunities to improve smallholder pig systems exist if the constraints are minimized. However the constraints and opportunities vary among smallholder producers as they are not a homogenous group and are affected by various factors. This paper applies a cluster analysis to characterize smallholder pig production systems into typologies in three districts in Uganda by utilizing village level data from 35 villages. The paper further explores the constraints and opportunities for the different typologies to engage with output and input market systems. The paper concludes that different interventions are necessary to improve market linkages with the smallholder pig production systems due to their varying differences in terms of farmers’ cooperative involvement, institutional linkages and intensification related indicators.

This study was conducted in the rural kebeles around Dire Dawa for designing a simple, yet, feasible breeding scheme in the context of community-based management of animal genetic resources. Range of participatory rural appraisal tools, including focal group discussions and participatory mappings, were employed to study the local community’s Indigenous knowledge and practices in managing the goat gene pool. The breeding objective and local trait preferences were defined in a participatory manner through own-flock ranking experiments. The community generally practices selective pure breeding where by the own flock and flocks in the neighbourhood were the units of selection for bucks. There are social regulations in the community against sale of breeding does outside the community while encouraging communal use of outstanding breeding males. Goats are kept for multifaceted purposes ranging from products like milk, meat and live-sale to functions in socio-cultural, financial and ritual state of affairs. The breeding objective is to ensure improved milk production, through increased daily yield per doe and increased fertility per flock, and increased net income per flock, through increased number of marketable animals. Traditional criteria such as conformation, behaviour and adaptation were as important as most “production” traits in selecting breeding animals. The breeding goal traits considered were, accordingly, milk production, conformation and reproductive traits. Based on these findings, village breeding schemes, where-by flocks and breeding groups in a village are taken as focal points, is recommended as way forward in genetic improvement. The framework for a feasible implementation of such genetic improvement scheme is outlined based on the rationale of utilizing available social regulations, indigenous knowledge and traditional systems of breeding as well as future market prospects.