Trypanosomal infections in female Glossina morsitans morsitans were investigated in an area in the Eastern Province of Zambia between 1992 and 1994. A total of 4 416 flies were captured, aged using the ovarian ageing method and screened for trypanosomal infections in both the mouthparts, salivary glands and the midgut. Congolense-type infections were identified in 4.8 % of the flies. Vivax-type and immature infections were identified in 1.8 % and 6.8 % of the flies, respectively. The prevalence of con golense-type, vivax-type and immature infections increased with age. For vivax-type infections the age-prevalence relationship could be described by a model assuming a constant per capita rate of infection. For congolense-type and midgut infections, a polynomial term was added to the model significantly improving the fit. The per capita at which flies become infected was significantly higher for immature compared to mature infections. Observations strongly suggest that tsetse acquire new midgut infections at any age and that maturation of these infections is not limited to those obtained during the first blood meal.

Trypanosomal infections in female Glossina morsitans morsitans were investigated in an area in the Eastern Province of Zambia between 1992 and 1994. A total of 4 416 flies were captured, aged using the ovarian ageing method and screened for trypanosomal infections in both the mouthparts, salivary glands and the midgut. Congolense-type infections were identified in 4.8 % of the flies. Vivax-type and immature infections were identified in 1.8 % and 6.8 % of the flies, respectively. The prevalence of con golense-type, vivax-type and immature infections increased with age. For vivax-type infections the age-prevalence relationship could be described by a model assuming a constant per capita rate of infection. For congolense-type and midgut infections, a polynomial term was added to the model significantly improving the fit. The per capita at which flies become infected was significantly higher for immature compared to mature infections. Observations strongly suggest that tsetse acquire new midgut infections at any age and that maturation of these infections is not limited to those obtained during the first blood meal.

The suitability of present and future climates for 30 Rhipicephalus species in Africa are predicted using a simple climate envelope model as well as a Division of Atmospheric Research Limited-Area Model (DARLAM). DARLAM's predictions are compared with the mean outcome from two global circulation models. East Africa and South Africa are considered the most vulnerable regions on the continent to climate-induced changes in tick distributions and tick-borne diseases. More than 50% of the species examined show potential range expansion and more than 70% of this range expansion is found in economically important tick species. More than 20% of the species experienced range shifts of between 50 and 100%. There is also an increase in tick species richness in the south-western regions of the sub-continent. Actual range alterations due to climate change may be even greater since factors like land degradation and human population increase have not been included in this modelling process. However, these predictions are also subject to the effect that climate change may have on the hosts of the ticks, particularly those that favour a restricted range of hosts. Where possible, the anticipated biological implications of the predicted changes are explored.

The suitability of present and future climates for 30 Rhipicephalus species in Africa are predicted using a simple climate envelope model as well as a Division of Atmospheric Research Limited-Area Model (DARLAM). DARLAM's predictions are compared with the mean outcome from two global circulation models. East Africa and South Africa are considered the most vulnerable regions on the continent to climate-induced changes in tick distributions and tick-borne diseases. More than 50% of the species examined show potential range expansion and more than 70% of this range expansion is found in economically important tick species. More than 20% of the species experienced range shifts of between 50 and 100%. There is also an increase in tick species richness in the south-western regions of the sub-continent. Actual range alterations due to climate change may be even greater since factors like land degradation and human population increase have not been included in this modelling process. However, these predictions are also subject to the effect that climate change may have on the hosts of the ticks, particularly those that favour a restricted range of hosts. Where possible, the anticipated biological implications of the predicted changes are explored.

The length of the antibiotic withdrawal period after intramammary treatment was influenced by the milk yield of dairy goats during this trial. Shorter withdrawal periods were seen in relatively high yielding dairy goats (production above 1.5 ℓ per day) compared to low producers (less than 1.3 ℓ per day). High yielding goats treated with Curaclox LC (Norbrook [Pharmacia AH]) had a withdrawal period of 42 h, while low yielding goats, treated with the same product, had a withdrawal period of 74 h. The recommended withdrawal period for Curaclox LC for use in cattle is 72 h. Relatively high yielding goats treated with Rilexine 200 LC (Logos Agvet [Virbac]) had a significantly shorter withdrawal period (37 h) than that recommended for use in cattle (96 h). Low yielding goats treated with Spectrazol Milking Cow (Schering-Plough Animal Health) had a significantly longer (95 h) withdrawal period than that recommended for use in cattle (60 h). Withdrawal periods were also influenced by stage of lactation and parity. There was a moderate positive correlation between lactation number and withdrawal period, as measured by TRIS (R2 = 0.621), and a moderate negative correlation between stage of lactation and withdrawal period (R2 = -0.669). In Trials 1, 2 and 3 combined there was a moderate negative correlation between withdrawal period and volume (R2 = -0.511) and a strong positive correlation between withdrawal period and lactation number (R2 = 0.720). The differences in percentage milk fat, protein and lactose before, during and after treatment were not statistically significant except in Trial 3 (Curaclox LC and Rilexine 200 LC) where protein and lactose differed significantly. In Trial 2 (Spectrazol Milking Cow) milk fat percentages differed significantly between treatment and control groups as did protein percentages in Trial 3. These differences are however, not biologically meaningful.

The length of the antibiotic withdrawal period after intramammary treatment was influenced by the milk yield of dairy goats during this trial. Shorter withdrawal periods were seen in relatively high yielding dairy goats (production above 1.5 ℓ per day) compared to low producers (less than 1.3 ℓ per day). High yielding goats treated with Curaclox LC (Norbrook [Pharmacia AH]) had a withdrawal period of 42 h, while low yielding goats, treated with the same product, had a withdrawal period of 74 h. The recommended withdrawal period for Curaclox LC for use in cattle is 72 h. Relatively high yielding goats treated with Rilexine 200 LC (Logos Agvet [Virbac]) had a significantly shorter withdrawal period (37 h) than that recommended for use in cattle (96 h). Low yielding goats treated with Spectrazol Milking Cow (Schering-Plough Animal Health) had a significantly longer (95 h) withdrawal period than that recommended for use in cattle (60 h). Withdrawal periods were also influenced by stage of lactation and parity. There was a moderate positive correlation between lactation number and withdrawal period, as measured by TRIS (R2 = 0.621), and a moderate negative correlation between stage of lactation and withdrawal period (R2 = -0.669). In Trials 1, 2 and 3 combined there was a moderate negative correlation between withdrawal period and volume (R2 = -0.511) and a strong positive correlation between withdrawal period and lactation number (R2 = 0.720). The differences in percentage milk fat, protein and lactose before, during and after treatment were not statistically significant except in Trial 3 (Curaclox LC and Rilexine 200 LC) where protein and lactose differed significantly. In Trial 2 (Spectrazol Milking Cow) milk fat percentages differed significantly between treatment and control groups as did protein percentages in Trial 3. These differences are however, not biologically meaningful.

Between July 2005 and November 2006 the gastro-intestinal helminths of 15 Helmeted guineafowls and a single Crested guineafowl from Musina, Limpopo Province were examined, and in July and August 2005 helminths were collected from five Helmeted guineafowls from Mokopane in the same province. The acanthocephalan Mediorhynchus gallinarum, the cestodes Abuladzugnia gutterae, Davainea nana, Hymenolepis cantaniana, Numidella numida, Octopetalum numida, Ortleppolepis multiuncinata, Porogynia paronai, Raillietina angusta, Raillietina pintneri, Raillietina steinhardti and Raillietina sp. and the nematodes Ascaridia numidae, Cyrnea parroti, Gongylonema congolense, Hadjelia truncata, Sicarius caudatus, Subulura dentigera, Subulura suctoria, Subulura sp., Tetrameres numida and an unidentified subulurid were recovered. A single trematode species, Dicrocoelium macrostomum, was present in the liver. Mediorhynchus gallinarum, A. gutterae, O. multiuncinata, H. truncata and S. caudatus are recorded for the first time from Helmeted guineafowls, as well as from South Africa. South Africa is a new geographic record for D. macrostomum, G. congolense and D. nana. Subulura suctoria, G. congolense and H. truncata from the Crested guineafowl constitute new host-parasite associations.

Between July 2005 and November 2006 the gastro-intestinal helminths of 15 Helmeted guineafowls and a single Crested guineafowl from Musina, Limpopo Province were examined, and in July and August 2005 helminths were collected from five Helmeted guineafowls from Mokopane in the same province. The acanthocephalan Mediorhynchus gallinarum, the cestodes Abuladzugnia gutterae, Davainea nana, Hymenolepis cantaniana, Numidella numida, Octopetalum numida, Ortleppolepis multiuncinata, Porogynia paronai, Raillietina angusta, Raillietina pintneri, Raillietina steinhardti and Raillietina sp. and the nematodes Ascaridia numidae, Cyrnea parroti, Gongylonema congolense, Hadjelia truncata, Sicarius caudatus, Subulura dentigera, Subulura suctoria, Subulura sp., Tetrameres numida and an unidentified subulurid were recovered. A single trematode species, Dicrocoelium macrostomum, was present in the liver. Mediorhynchus gallinarum, A. gutterae, O. multiuncinata, H. truncata and S. caudatus are recorded for the first time from Helmeted guineafowls, as well as from South Africa. South Africa is a new geographic record for D. macrostomum, G. congolense and D. nana. Subulura suctoria, G. congolense and H. truncata from the Crested guineafowl constitute new host-parasite associations.

The toxic effects of an aqueous extract of Abrus precatorius were studied in 20 male white rats over a period of 18 days. The rats were divided into four groups of five rats per group. Those in Group A served as controls while the rats in Groups B, C and D were dosed per os with 400 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg and 1 600 mg/kg of the extract, respectively. Blood samples were collected for haematological and biochemical analysis and specimens of the liver, kidney and testes were taken for histopathological studies. The study showed that the extract of A. precatorius caused decreased levels of packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, red blood cell count, white blood cell count, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular haemoglobin. The extract also resulted in increased levels of total serum protein, albumin, alanine amino transaminase, aspartate amino transferase, alkaline phosphatase and total bilirubin. Histologically, testicular degeneration characterized by decreased numbers of lining cells of the epithelium as well as reduction in sperm cells with presence of scattered Sertoli cells were noted. The study thus showed that aqueous extract of Abrus precatorius is toxic and caution should be exercised in its use for medicinal purpose.

The toxic effects of an aqueous extract of Abrus precatorius were studied in 20 male white rats over a period of 18 days. The rats were divided into four groups of five rats per group. Those in Group A served as controls while the rats in Groups B, C and D were dosed per os with 400 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg and 1 600 mg/kg of the extract, respectively. Blood samples were collected for haematological and biochemical analysis and specimens of the liver, kidney and testes were taken for histopathological studies. The study showed that the extract of A. precatorius caused decreased levels of packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, red blood cell count, white blood cell count, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular haemoglobin. The extract also resulted in increased levels of total serum protein, albumin, alanine amino transaminase, aspartate amino transferase, alkaline phosphatase and total bilirubin. Histologically, testicular degeneration characterized by decreased numbers of lining cells of the epithelium as well as reduction in sperm cells with presence of scattered Sertoli cells were noted. The study thus showed that aqueous extract of Abrus precatorius is toxic and caution should be exercised in its use for medicinal purpose.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), caused by Mycoplasma mycoides var. mycoides small colony (MmmSC), is one of the most important diseases of cattle in Africa. The role of innate or acquired cell mediated and humoral immunity in conferring protection against MmmSC infection has not yet been elucidated. On the other hand, the pathological lesions caused by the aetiological agent have been considered indicative of an immunopathological process. In this study ten nave cattle were exposed to in-contact infection with animals infected by intubation with a strain of MmmSC. Clinical signs, antibody response, IFNg release and pathological changes at necropsy were analysed and compared with the events following in-contact infection of an equal number of animals kept under daily treatment with cyclosporine for the entire observation period of 84 days. Cyclosporine is a suppressor of the immune response related to the T-cell system. Under the conditions of the experiment, cyclosporine appeared to condition the pathogenesis of CBPP by delaying the events that follow infection, bringing further support to the possibility that the immune response may have an impact on the disease outcome.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), caused by Mycoplasma mycoides var. mycoides small colony (MmmSC), is one of the most important diseases of cattle in Africa. The role of innate or acquired cell mediated and humoral immunity in conferring protection against MmmSC infection has not yet been elucidated. On the other hand, the pathological lesions caused by the aetiological agent have been considered indicative of an immunopathological process. In this study ten naïve cattle were exposed to in-contact infection with animals infected by intubation with a strain of MmmSC. Clinical signs, antibody response, IFNg release and pathological changes at necropsy were analysed and compared with the events following in-contact infection of an equal number of animals kept under daily treatment with cyclosporine for the entire observation period of 84 days. Cyclosporine is a suppressor of the immune response related to the T-cell system. Under the conditions of the experiment, cyclosporine appeared to condition the pathogenesis of CBPP by delaying the events that follow infection, bringing further support to the possibility that the immune response may have an impact on the disease outcome.

Intramammary antibiotics are registered and tested for use in dairy cattle. This study investigated withdrawal periods of three intramammary antibiotics (Curaclox LC [Norbrook Pharmacia AH]), Spectrazol Milking Cow (Schering-Plough Animal Health) and Rilexine 200 LC (Logos Agvet [Virbac]) in dairy goats and compared them to withdrawal periods recommended for use in cattle. Three trials were carried out in two different herds. The withdrawal periods for Curaclox LC in eight relatively low producing Saanen goats were 74.3 h (+ 19.21) measured by Thermo-Resistant Inhibitory Substances (TRIS), 90.0 h (+ 16.97) measured by colour dye, 99.4 h (+ 9.07) for cloxacillin measured by Parallux Beta Lactam Assay test (IDEXX distributors), and 92.6 h (+ 11.41) for ampicillin measured by Parallux. The withdrawal period for Curaclox LC recommended for use in cattle (72 h) was significantly shorter than the withdrawal periods as measured by colour dye (P 0.001), Parallux testing for cloxacillin (P 0.001) and ampicillin (P = 0.003). There was a significant difference in withdrawal periods as measured by TRIS (P = 0.009) and colour dye (P = 0.036). The mean withdrawal periods measured on 12 relatively high producing Saanen and Saanen-Toggenburg crossbreed dairy goats measured by TRIS, colour dye and Parallux for ampicillin and cloxacillin were, however, shorter at 42.0 h (+ 7.077), 64.5 h (+ 60.26), 77.3 h (+ 13.56) and 70.7 h (+ 12.65), respectively. These withdrawal periods for Curaclox LC were significantly longer than the withdrawal periods recommended for cattle as measured by TRIS (P 0.001) and colour dye (P 0.001). The combined withdrawal periods for Curaclox LC in the two trials as measured by TRIS, colour dye, Parallux testing for Cloxacillin and Ampicillin were 58.64h (+ 24.31), 75.8 h (+ 17.70), 87.0 h (+ 16.10) and 80.3 h (+ 16.23), respectively. The withdrawal period, when data of the two trials were combined, measured by TRIS (P 0.001) was significantly longer than the withdrawal period recommended for use in cattle. The mean withdrawal period as measured by TRIS for Spectrazol Milking Cow for seven relatively low producing Saanen dairy goats was 95.3 h (+ 17.23). This was significantly (P 0.001) longer than the withdrawal period recommended for use in cattle (60 h) for Spectrazol Milking Cow.The mean withdrawal period as measured by TRIS for Rilexine 200 LC for 20 relatively high producing Saanen and Saanen-Toggenburg crossbreed dairy goats was 36.9 h (+ 9.943) and was significantly (P 0.001) shorter than the withdrawal period as recommended for use in cattle (96 h). There were also significant differences in all the one-sample t-tests between withdrawal periods for goats and recommended withdrawal periods for cattle without the 24 h safety margin.

Intramammary antibiotics are registered and tested for use in dairy cattle. This study investigated withdrawal periods of three intramammary antibiotics (Curaclox LC [Norbrook Pharmacia AH]), Spectrazol Milking Cow (Schering-Plough Animal Health) and Rilexine 200 LC (Logos Agvet [Virbac]) in dairy goats and compared them to withdrawal periods recommended for use in cattle. Three trials were carried out in two different herds. The withdrawal periods for Curaclox LC in eight relatively low producing Saanen goats were 74.3 h (+ 19.21) measured by Thermo-Resistant Inhibitory Substances (TRIS), 90.0 h (+ 16.97) measured by colour dye, 99.4 h (+ 9.07) for cloxacillin measured by Parallux Beta Lactam Assay test (IDEXX distributors), and 92.6 h (+ 11.41) for ampicillin measured by Parallux. The withdrawal period for Curaclox LC recommended for use in cattle (72 h) was significantly shorter than the withdrawal periods as measured by colour dye (P < 0.001), Parallux testing for cloxacillin (P < 0.001) and ampicillin (P = 0.003). There was a significant difference in withdrawal periods as measured by TRIS (P = 0.009) and colour dye (P = 0.036). The mean withdrawal periods measured on 12 relatively high producing Saanen and Saanen-Toggenburg crossbreed dairy goats measured by TRIS, colour dye and Parallux for ampicillin and cloxacillin were, however, shorter at 42.0 h (+ 7.077), 64.5 h (+ 60.26), 77.3 h (+ 13.56) and 70.7 h (+ 12.65), respectively. These withdrawal periods for Curaclox LC were significantly longer than the withdrawal periods recommended for cattle as measured by TRIS (P < 0.001) and colour dye (P < 0.001). The combined withdrawal periods for Curaclox LC in the two trials as measured by TRIS, colour dye, Parallux testing for Cloxacillin and Ampicillin were 58.64h (+ 24.31), 75.8 h (+ 17.70), 87.0 h (+ 16.10) and 80.3 h (+ 16.23), respectively. The withdrawal period, when data of the two trials were combined, measured by TRIS (P < 0.001) was significantly longer than the withdrawal period recommended for use in cattle. The mean withdrawal period as measured by TRIS for Spectrazol Milking Cow for seven relatively low producing Saanen dairy goats was 95.3 h (+ 17.23). This was significantly (P < 0.001) longer than the withdrawal period recommended for use in cattle (60 h) for Spectrazol Milking Cow. The mean withdrawal period as measured by TRIS for Rilexine 200 LC for 20 relatively high producing Saanen and Saanen-Toggenburg crossbreed dairy goats was 36.9 h (+ 9.943) and was significantly (P < 0.001) shorter than the withdrawal period as recommended for use in cattle (96 h). There were also significant differences in all the one-sample t-tests between withdrawal periods for goats and recommended withdrawal periods for cattle without the 24 h safety margin.

A comparison of mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and packed cell volume (PCV) was made between cattle undergoing lethal and non-lethal reactions following experimental infections with the apicomplexan protozoa, Theileria parva Katete. This work confirmed that anaemia occurs in infected animals. However, the fall in PCV was steeper in lethal reactions compared to non-lethal reactions. Our results show that animals with initially lower MCV values are more prone to fatal reaction, despite having normal PCV profiles. The study also found that small red blood cells are more likely to be infected with T. parva. These findings suggest that animals with a higher proportion of small red blood cells in circulation will be more likely to succumb to T. parva infections. The potential for using MCV as a predictor of the outcome of infection challenge is discussed.

A comparison of mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and packed cell volume (PCV) was made between cattle undergoing lethal and non-lethal reactions following experimental infections with the apicomplexan protozoa, Theileria parva Katete. This work confirmed that anaemia occurs in infected animals. However, the fall in PCV was steeper in lethal reactions compared to non-lethal reactions. Our results show that animals with initially lower MCV values are more prone to fatal reaction, despite having normal PCV profiles. The study also found that small red blood cells are more likely to be infected with T. parva. These findings suggest that animals with a higher proportion of small red blood cells in circulation will be more likely to succumb to T. parva infections. The potential for using MCV as a predictor of the outcome of infection challenge is discussed.

The epidemiology of serotype SAT-2 foot-and-mouth disease was investigated in sub-Saharan Africa by phylogenetic analysis using the 1D gene encoding the major antigenic determinant. Fourteen genotypes were identified of which three are novel and belong to East Africa, bringing the total number of genotypes for that region to eight. The genotypes clustered into three lineages that demonstrated surprising links between East, southern and south-western Africa. One lineage was unique to West Africa. These results established numerous incursions across country borders in East Africa and long term conservation of sequences for periods up to 41 years. Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda have all experienced outbreaks from more than one unrelated strain, demonstrating the potential for new introductions. The amount of variation observed within this serotype nearly equalled that which was found between serotypes; this has severe implications for disease control using vaccination.

The epidemiology of serotype SAT-2 foot-and-mouth disease was investigated in sub-Saharan Africa by phylogenetic analysis using the 1D gene encoding the major antigenic determinant. Fourteen genotypes were identified of which three are novel and belong to East Africa, bringing the total number of genotypes for that region to eight. The genotypes clustered into three lineages that demonstrated surprising links between East, southern and south-western Africa. One lineage was unique to West Africa. These results established numerous incursions across country borders in East Africa and long term conservation of sequences for periods up to 41 years. Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda have all experienced outbreaks from more than one unrelated strain, demonstrating the potential for new introductions. The amount of variation observed within this serotype nearly equalled that which was found between serotypes; this has severe implications for disease control using vaccination.

The viruses causing the economically important livestock diseases of African horse sickness (AHS) and bluetongue (BT) are transmitted by biting midges of the genus Culicoides (Diptera, Cerato po gonidae). In the Old World the most important vectors of these diseases are Culicoides imicola Kieffer, 1913, Culicoides brevitarsis Kieffer, 1917 and Culicoides bolitinos Meiswinkel, 1989. All three of these vectors belong to the Imicola complex of the subgenus Avaritia Fox, 1955. This species complex now comprises 12 sibling species; ten occur in sub-Saharan Africa and are difficult to identify (based mostly on subtle variations in the wing patterns) and so additional methods of reliable identification are needed. The pupal exuviae of the five commonest sibling species (C. imicola, C. bolitinos, Culicoides loxodontis Meiswinkel, 1992, Culicoides tuttifrutti Meiswinkel, Cornet Dyce, 2003 and Culicoides sp. # 107) harvested from a variety of large herbivore dung types and from decaying fruits, are described and illustrated in detail. It is shown that they can be differentiated clearly on a number of morphological characters and, furthermore, are separable into two distinct groups based (principally) on the shape of the respiratory organ. A key for identifying and differentiating these five pupae is provided. Also, the pupa of the Oriental-Australasian C. brevitarsis was compared with its allopatric sister taxon, C. bolitinos. Because they share a common larval habitat (cattle and buffalo dung) and are almost inseparable in the adult phenotype, the question of their possible synonymy is raised. However, their respective pupae could not be differentiated on gross morphology and so it is argued that this unresolved problem requires a molecular solution.

The viruses causing the economically important livestock diseases of African horse sickness (AHS) and bluetongue (BT) are transmitted by biting midges of the genus Culicoides (Diptera, Cerato po gonidae). In the Old World the most important vectors of these diseases are Culicoides imicola Kieffer, 1913, Culicoides brevitarsis Kieffer, 1917 and Culicoides bolitinos Meiswinkel, 1989. All three of these vectors belong to the Imicola complex of the subgenus Avaritia Fox, 1955. This species complex now comprises 12 sibling species; ten occur in sub-Saharan Africa and are difficult to identify (based mostly on subtle variations in the wing patterns) and so additional methods of reliable identification are needed. The pupal exuviae of the five commonest sibling species (C. imicola, C. bolitinos, Culicoides loxodontis Meiswinkel, 1992, Culicoides tuttifrutti Meiswinkel, Cornet & Dyce, 2003 and Culicoides sp. # 107) harvested from a variety of large herbivore dung types and from decaying fruits, are described and illustrated in detail. It is shown that they can be differentiated clearly on a number of morphological characters and, furthermore, are separable into two distinct groups based (principally) on the shape of the respiratory organ. A key for identifying and differentiating these five pupae is provided. Also, the pupa of the Oriental-Australasian C. brevitarsis was compared with its allopatric sister taxon, C. bolitinos. Because they share a common larval habitat (cattle and buffalo dung) and are almost inseparable in the adult phenotype, the question of their possible synonymy is raised. However, their respective pupae could not be differentiated on gross morphology and so it is argued that this unresolved problem requires a molecular solution.