Hot water and hydroethanolic (70:30) extracts were prepared from 15 plant species, which were investigated to discover eco-friendly and less expensive tick control methods as an alternative to synthetic acaricides. A contact bioassay was used to determine the acaricidal activity of these extracts against the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus turanicus (Acari: Ixodidae) at a concentration of 20% (200 mg/mL). The hydroethanolic extracts had better activity than the hot water extracts against R. turanicus. The hydroethanolic extract from Tabernaemontana elegans (leaves) had the best mortality (87.0%). This was followed by Calpurnia aurea (stems) with a mortality of 75.0%, Schkuhria pinnata (whole plant) with a mortality of 67.0% and Aloe rupestris (leaves) with a mortality of 66.6%. The toxicity of the plant extracts was also investigated and it was found that most of the hydroethanolic and hot water extracts were either safe or very safe on human Vero kidney and liver HepG2 cells. From this study, it was evident that botanicals have the potential to be developed as environmentally benign natural acaricides against R. turanicus.

Caprine pediculosis is an ectoparasitic disease of great concern among goat farmers in India. It may be caused by either sucking lice or chewing lice; the latter one results in severe skin lesions, leading to production loss. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the macrocytic lactone drug, ivermectin, administered via subcutaneous injection, against chewing lice Bovicola (Damalinia) caprae infestation in naturally infested goats. The study was conducted on 20 goats with severe B. caprae infestation. Animals of group A (n = 10) were treated using a single dose of ivermectin (200 µg/kg body weight) subcutaneously and animals of group B (n = 10) underwent placebo therapy using normal saline. The animals were examined on days 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 and 56 for lice counts. There was 100% elimination of lice in all animals of group A and effective protection from re-infection remained at least for 21 days. Considerable improvement in haematological parameters was also observed by day 21. Based on this study, ivermectin injected via a subcutaneous route can be used effectively for the therapeutic and prophylactic management of chewing lice infestation in goats maintained under an extensive grazing system.

Canine leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania that affect dogs, humans and wildlife. Sandflies of the genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia are the primary vectors. Canine leishmaniasis is an exotic and controlled disease in South Africa. The main purpose of our risk assessment study was to evaluate the likelihood that this exotic disease could enter and be established in South Africa through importation of live dogs. Risk analysis to the spread of the disease follows the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) formal method of quantitative risk assessment documented as a step-by-step process. We have identified and discussed 11 possible risk factors involved in three steps for final assessment. The annual average number of diagnostic tests performed on imported dogs from 44 countries for 2011-2015 was 1158. Leishmania is reported to occur in 21/44 (47.7%) exporting countries. A total of 71.1% of Leishmania positive dogs were imported from these endemic countries. The yearly percentage of Leishmania positive dogs ranged from 0.2% to 2%. Three confirmed clinical and fatal cases of leishmaniasis in dogs of unidentified origin have been reported by our laboratory and the state veterinarians. The disease has been reported in neighbouring countries as well as the putative sandfly vectors. This study concluded that the risk for the introduction and degree of uncertainty of Leishmania in imported dogs in South Africa are moderate. Risk mitigation and recommendations such as investigations into possible occurrence of autochthonous leishmaniasis in the country, surveillance in its wildlife reservoirs and systematic surveillance of sandfly populations are discussed.

Fasciola spp. are the causative agents of fascioliasis in humans and livestock. Before the development of control and management measures, the geographical distribution of the species and patterns of infection must be considered. Because of difficulties in the phenotypic differentiation and morphometric classification of Fasciola spp., DNA molecular markers have become more useful for fluke differentiation and description of phylogenetic patterns. This study aimed to differentiate and describe the phylogenetic background of Fasciola spp. isolated from cattle slaughtered at three abattoirs in the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa. The cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) - FHCO1 (forward: 5′-TTGGTTTTTTGGGCATCCT-3′) and FHCO1 (reverse: 5′ -AGGCCACCACCAAATAAAAGA3′) - marker was sequenced from 55 Fasciola flukes that were collected from abattoirs in catchment areas of the KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces. Fasciola hepatica was demonstrated to have 100% prevalence in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga (highveld), respectively, and 76% prevalence in the lowveld (Belfast area) of Mpumalanga. Two animals from the Belfast metapopulation were co-infected with both Fasciola gigantica and F. hepatica. DNA sequence analysis of all the isolates demonstrated a sequence conservation of 0.472, nucleotide diversity of 0.082 and Tajima's D of -1.100; however, it was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Twenty-two haplotypes were identified, with 18 novel haplotypes being unique to the isolates from South Africa. Within the study samples, 12 haplotypes were isolated to a few individuals, with a haplotype diversity of 0.8957 indicating high genetic diversity. Principal coordinate analysis supported the clustering and distribution of the haplotypes, with 11.38% of the variation being attributed to coordinate 2 and 55.52% to coordinate 1. The distribution of Fasciola spp. has been demonstrated to be related to the distribution of the freshwater intermediate host snails, Lymnaea spp., as well as the relative altitude of the localities in South Africa. Information provided by this study serves as preliminary evidence for further studies on the mapping of the distribution of F. gigantica and F. hepatica in South Africa, which is key in designing control programmes for fascioliasis in humans and livestock.

Several types of odours are involved in the location of host animals by tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae), a vector of animal African trypanosomiasis. Host animals' ageing urine has been shown to be the source of a phenolic blend attractive to the tsetse. Nevertheless, limited research has been performed on the microbial communities' role in the production of phenols. This study aimed at profiling bacterial communities mediating the production of tsetse attractive phenols in mammalian urine. Urine samples were collected from African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), cattle (Bos taurus) and eland (Taurotragus oryx) at Kongoni Game Valley Ranch and Kenyatta University in Kenya. Urine samples, of each animal species, were pooled and left open to age in ambient conditions. Bacteriological and phenols analyses were then carried out, at 4 days ageing intervals, for 24 days. Phenols analysis revealed nine volatile phenols: 4-cresol, ortho-cresol, 3-cresol, phenol, 3-ethylphenol, 3-propylphenol, 2-methyloxyphenol, 4-ethylphenol and 4-propylphenol. Eight out of 19 bacterial isolates from the ageing urine revealed the potential to mediate production of phenols. 16S rRNA gene characterisation of the isolates closely resembled Enterococcus faecalis KUB3006, Psychrobacter alimentarius PAMC 27887, Streptococcus agalactiae 2603V, Morganella morganii sub.sp. morganii KT, Micrococcus luteus NCTC2665, Planococcus massiliensis strain ES2, Ochrobactrum pituitosum AA2 and Enterococcus faecalis OGIRF. This study established that some of the phenols emitted from mammalian urine, which influence the tsetse's host-seeking behaviour, are well characterised by certain bacteria. These results may allow the development of biotechnological models in vector control that combines the use of these bacteria in the controlled release of semiochemicals.

The classification and description of digenean trematodes are commonly accomplished by using morphological features, especially in adult stages. The aim of this study was to provide an analysis of the genetic composition of larval digenean trematodes using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequence analysis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted from clinostomatid metacercaria, 27-spined echinostomatid redia, avian schistosome cercaria and strigeid metacercaria from various dams in the proximity of Tshwane metropolitan, South Africa. Polymerase chain reaction was performed using the extracted DNA with primers targeting various regions within the larval digenean trematodes' genomes. Agarose gel electrophoresis technique was used to visualise the PCR products. The PCR products were sequenced on an Applied Bioinformatics (ABI) genetic analyser platform. Genetic information obtained from this study had a higher degree of discrimination than the morphological characteristics of seemingly similar organisms.

This epidemiological study aimed to determine the species of tick infestation in dogs, their prevalence and dynamic in the Bejaia province, northeastern Algeria. A total of 631 dogs were examined from different localities of the Bejaia province between March 2016 and February 2017. Of the 631 examined dogs, 15% were infested with one or more tick species. A total of 339 adult ticks were collected and identified, including 199 male tick species and 140 female tick species. Our results revealed that most of these were Rhipicephalus species, with Rhipicephalus sanguineus (51.32%) being the most prevalent followed by Rhipicephalus bursa (35.1%) and Rhipicephalus turanicus (12.98%). Ixodes ricinus represented only 0.6% of all ticks collected. The highest infested seasons were spring (22.55%) and summer (22.54%) and the lowest infested seasons were autumn (8.62%) and winter ( 0.9%). There is no significant difference between the sex of the animal and the prevalence of infestation (p = 0.837). Also, the prevalence of infestation by ticks in young animals was higher than that in adult animals (p = 0.550). A significant difference between the prevalence of infestation and animal breed was observed (p = 0.042). This study is the first epidemiological investigation conducted on the prevalence of hard ticks infesting domestic dogs in Bejaia (northeastern Algeria) based on conventional methods. It is therefore necessary to implement an effective tick control strategy during infestation periods in order to prevent vector-borne diseases.

Between July and September 2017, samples collected from six unvaccinated chickens in Namibia were shown to be positive for infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) by RT-PCR. Partial sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the VP1 and VP2 genes from six viruses revealed that they all belong to the very virulent pathotype (Genogroup 3) and are genetically very similar to IBDVs identified in neighbouring Zambia. This is the first molecular characterisation of IBDV in Namibia and has implications on the control and management of the disease in the country.

BACKGROUND: Giardia and Cryptosporidium species are significant zoonotic parasites of humans and domesticated animals. OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in livestock and dogs of the Magude District. METHOD: The flotation technique (Willis), modified Ziehl-Neelsen (mZN) and direct and indirect immunofluorescence (DIF and IIF) techniques were applied to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in faecal samples of dog pups (156), goat kids (60) and calves (480) from the Magude District of Mozambique from February to September 2015. RESULTS: Using Willis, IIF and DIF, the prevalence of Giardia in calves was 0%, 8.1%, and 6.0%; in dogs 0.6%, 8.3% and 5.7% and for goats 0% and 13.3% (IIF was not performed), respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in calves using Willis, mZN, IIF and DIF was 0%, 3.8%, 4.7% and 0.4% and in dogs 0%, 0.6%, 6.4% and 0.6%, respectively. The parasite was not detected in goats. CONCLUSION: Results from the present study showed that IIF performed better diagnosis of Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and that the mZN can be used as an alternative for Cryptosporidium because of the high cost of IIF. There is a need for identification of genotypes or subtypes of these parasites through application of molecular techniques in order to determine their zoonotic potential, and we advocate a 'one health' approach in the control and prevention of these parasites.

Mycobacterium bovis is the main cause of tuberculosis in wildlife. In South Africa, African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) are a wildlife maintenance host while a number of other species are considered spillover hosts. Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii), a large antelope species from Southern Africa, is frequently traded and can be infected with M. bovis. Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) release assays that detect cell-mediated immune (CMI) responses to M. bovis infection have shown promise in elephants, rhinoceroses and buffaloes. The BOVIGAM® assay is a commercial IFN-γ release assay designed to detect tuberculosis in cattle and has been validated in buffaloes. We tested the suitability of the BOVIGAM® assay to detect native IFN-γ release in nyala. Blood samples collected from 17 nyalas were stimulated with different mitogens and IFN-γ release measured. We found that incubating whole blood with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and calcium ionophore (PMA/CaI) resulted in the highest levels of IFN-y release. Samples stimulated with tuberculin purified protein derivatives of M. bovis (PPDb) and M. avium (PPDa) did not show significant IFN-γ production. An intradermal tuberculin test (IDT) and culture of tissues from 15 of the 17 culled nyala were also performed, which supported the findings of the BOVIGAM® assay, suggesting the potential value of this assay for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in nyala.