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Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever in cattle and selected wildlife species at the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe Texto completo
2020
Masimba Ndengu | Gift Matope | Musavengana Tivapasi | Davies M. Pfukenyi | Catherine Cetre-Sossah | Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky
Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever in cattle and selected wildlife species at the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe Texto completo
2020
Masimba Ndengu | Gift Matope | Musavengana Tivapasi | Davies M. Pfukenyi | Catherine Cetre-Sossah | Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky
A study was conducted to investigate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever (RVF) infection in cattle and some selected wildlife species at selected interface areas at the periphery of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area in Zimbabwe. Three study sites were selected based on the type of livestock–wildlife interface: porous livestock–wildlife interface (unrestricted); non-porous livestock–wildlife interface (restricted by fencing) and livestock–wildlife non-interface (totally absent contact or control). Sera were collected from cattle aged ≥ 2 years representing both female and intact male. Sera were also collected from selected wild ungulates from Mabalauta (porous interface) and Chipinda Pools (non-interface) areas of the Gonarezhou National Park. Sera were tested for antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. AX2 test was used to assess differences between categories, and p 0.05 was considered as significant. In cattle, the overall seroprevalence was 1.7% (17/1011) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–2.7). The porous interface recorded a seroprevalence of 2.3% (95% CI: 1.2–4.3), the non-porous interface recorded a prevalence of 1.8% (95% CI: 0.7–4.3) and the non-interface area recorded a seroprevalence of 0.4% (955 CI: 0.02–2.5), but the difference in seroprevalence according to site was not significant (p 0.05). All impala and kudu samples tested negative. The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes was 11.7% (95% CI: 6.6–19.5), and there was no significant (p = 0.38) difference between the sites (Mabalauta, 4.4% [95% CI: 0.2–24] vs. Chipinda, 13.6% [95% CI: 7.6–23]). The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes (11.7%, 13/111) was significantly (p 0.0001) higher than in cattle (1.7%, 17/1011). The results established the presence of RVFV in cattle and selected wildlife and that sylvatic infections may be present in buffalo populations. Further studies are required to investigate if the virus is circulating between cattle and wildlife.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever in cattle and selected wildlife species at the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe Texto completo
2020
Ndengu, Masimba(University of Zimbabwe Faculty of Veterinary Science Department of Clinical Veterinary Studies) | Matope, Gift(University of Zimbabwe Faculty of Veterinary Science Department of Paraclinical Veterinary Studies) | Tivapasi, Musavengana(University of Zimbabwe Faculty of Veterinary Science Department of Clinical Veterinary Studies) | Pfukenyi, Davies M.(University of Zimbabwe Faculty of Veterinary Science Department of Clinical Veterinary Studies) | Cetre-Sossah, Catherine(ASTRE Animal Santé Territoires Risques Ecosystemes 2) | de Garine-Wichatitsky, Michel(UR AGIRs)
A study was conducted to investigate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever (RVF) infection in cattle and some selected wildlife species at selected interface areas at the periphery of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area in Zimbabwe. Three study sites were selected based on the type of livestock-wildlife interface: porous livestock-wildlife interface (unrestricted); non-porous livestock-wildlife interface (restricted by fencing) and livestock-wildlife non-interface (totally absent contact or control). Sera were collected from cattle aged ≥ 2 years representing both female and intact male. Sera were also collected from selected wild ungulates from Mabalauta (porous interface) and Chipinda Pools (non-interface) areas of the Gonarezhou National Park. Sera were tested for antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. AX2 test was used to assess differences between categories, and p < 0.05 was considered as significant. In cattle, the overall seroprevalence was 1.7% (17/1011) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01-2.7). The porous interface recorded a seroprevalence of 2.3% (95% CI: 1.2-4.3), the non-porous interface recorded a prevalence of 1.8% (95% CI: 0.7-4.3) and the non-interface area recorded a seroprevalence of 0.4% (955 CI: 0.02-2.5), but the difference in seroprevalence according to site was not significant (p > 0.05). All impala and kudu samples tested negative. The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes was 11.7% (95% CI: 6.6-19.5), and there was no significant (p = 0.38) difference between the sites (Mabalauta, 4.4% [95% CI: 0.2-24] vs. Chipinda, 13.6% [95% CI: 7.6-23]). The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes (11.7%, 13/111) was significantly (p < 0.0001) higher than in cattle (1.7%, 17/1011). The results established the presence of RVFV in cattle and selected wildlife and that sylvatic infections may be present in buffalo populations. Further studies are required to investigate if the virus is circulating between cattle and wildlife.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever in cattle and selected wildlife species at the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe Texto completo
2020
Ndengu, Masimba | Matope, Gift | Tivapasi, Musavengana | Pfukenyi, Davies Mubika | Cetre-Sossah, Catherine | De Garine-Wichatitsky, Michel
A study was conducted to investigate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever (RVF) infection in cattle and some selected wildlife species at selected interface areas at the periphery of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area in Zimbabwe. Three study sites were selected based on the type of livestock–wildlife interface: porous livestock–wildlife interface (unrestricted); non-porous livestock–wildlife interface (restricted by fencing) and livestock–wildlife non-interface (totally absent contact or control). Sera were collected from cattle aged ≥ 2 years representing both female and intact male. Sera were also collected from selected wild ungulates from Mabalauta (porous interface) and Chipinda Pools (non-interface) areas of the Gonarezhou National Park. Sera were tested for antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. AX2 test was used to assess differences between categories, and p < 0.05 was considered as significant. In cattle, the overall seroprevalence was 1.7% (17/1011) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–2.7). The porous interface recorded a seroprevalence of 2.3% (95% CI: 1.2–4.3), the non-porous interface recorded a prevalence of 1.8% (95% CI: 0.7–4.3) and the non-interface area recorded a seroprevalence of 0.4% (955 CI: 0.02–2.5), but the difference in seroprevalence according to site was not significant (p > 0.05). All impala and kudu samples tested negative. The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes was 11.7% (95% CI: 6.6–19.5), and there was no significant (p = 0.38) difference between the sites (Mabalauta, 4.4% [95% CI: 0.2–24] vs. Chipinda, 13.6% [95% CI: 7.6–23]). The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes (11.7%, 13/111) was significantly (p < 0.0001) higher than in cattle (1.7%, 17/1011). The results established the presence of RVFV in cattle and selected wildlife and that sylvatic infections may be present in buffalo populations. Further studies are required to investigate if the virus is circulating between cattle and wildlife.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever in cattle and selected wildlife species at the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe Texto completo
2020
Ndengu, Masimba | Matope, Gift | Tivapasi, Musavengana | Pfukenyi, Davies | Cêtre-Sossah, Catherine | de Garine-Wichatitsky, Michel | University of Zimbabwe (UZ) | Animal, Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes (UMR ASTRE) ; Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Cirad)-Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement (INRAE) | Département Systèmes Biologiques (Cirad-BIOS) ; Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Cirad)
International audience | A study was conducted to investigate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Rift Valley fever (RVF) infection in cattle and some selected wildlife species at selected interface areas at the periphery of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area in Zimbabwe. Three study sites were selected based on the type of livestock-wildlife interface: porous livestock-wildlife interface (unrestricted); non-porous livestock-wildlife interface (restricted by fencing) and livestock-wildlife non-interface (totally absent contact or control). Sera were collected from cattle aged >= 2 years representing both female and intact male. Sera were also collected from selected wild ungulates from Mabalauta (porous interface) and Chipinda Pools (non-interface) areas of the Gonarezhou National Park. Sera were tested for antibodies to Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. AX2 test was used to assess differences between categories, and p < 0.05 was considered as significant. In cattle, the overall seroprevalence was 1.7% (17/1011) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01-2.7). The porous interface recorded a seroprevalence of 2.3% (95% CI: 1.2-4.3), the non-porous interface recorded a prevalence of 1.8% (95% CI: 0.7-4.3) and the non-interface area recorded a seroprevalence of 0.4% (955 CI: 0.02-2.5), but the difference in seroprevalence according to site was not significant (p > 0.05). All impala and kudu samples tested negative. The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes was 11.7% (95% CI: 6.6-19.5), and there was no significant (p = 0.38) difference between the sites (Mabalauta, 4.4% [95% CI: 0.2-24] vs. Chipinda, 13.6% [95% CI: 7.6-23]). The overall seroprevalence in buffaloes (11.7%, 13/111) was significantly (p < 0.0001) higher than in cattle (1.7%, 17/1011). The results established the presence of RVFV in cattle and selected wildlife and that sylvatic infections may be present in buffalo populations. Further studies are required to investigate if the virus is circulating between cattle and wildlife.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Transference of reference intervals for variables of instrumented gait analysis in walking dogs Texto completo
2020
Olsen, Anastasia M. | Lambrechts, Nicolaas E. | Weng, Hsin-Yi | Kazmierczak, Kristine A.
OBJECTIVE To use the small data approach of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) to evaluate the transferability of reference intervals (RIs) for kinetic variables obtained with instrumented gait analysis (IGA) in dogs from an RI-originator laboratory to another laboratory that used the same data acquisition and analytic techniques for IGA in walking dogs. ANIMALS 27 adult client-owned dogs without evidence of lameness. PROCEDURES Dogs were individually walked at their preferred velocity on a pressure-sensing walkway for IGA at the Colorado State University Animal Gait Laboratory (CSU-AGL), and 6 valid trials were analyzed for each dog. The small data approach of the CLSI was then used to evaluate transferability of RIs previously established at the Purdue University Animal Gait Laboratory (PU-AGL). A linear model was used to establish weight-dependent RIs for peak vertical force (PVF). RESULTS Results indicated that RIs of dynamic weight distribution (DWD), DWD symmetry index, DWD coefficient of variation, PVF symmetry index, and PVF coefficient of variation were transferable from PU-AGL to CSU-AGL, whereas the weight-dependent RIs for PVF were not. Regression slopes for PVF versus body weight were greater for all limbs in dogs tested at the CSU-AGL, compared with historic results for dogs tested at the PU-AGL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Use of the small data approach method of the CLSI to validate transference of RIs for IGA kinetic variables in walking dogs was simple and efficient to perform and may help facilitate clinical and research collaborations on gait analysis.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Fluoroscopic and radiographic assessment of variations in tracheal height during inspiration and expiration in healthy adult small-breed dogs Texto completo
2020
Scherf, Gregoire | Masseau, I. | Bua, A. S. | Beauchamp, G. | Dunn, Marilyn E.
The objective of this study was to document tidal variations in tracheal height during normal respiration in 19 healthy adult (> 1 y old) small-breed dogs (< 10 kg) using fluoroscopy and radiography. Each dog underwent tracheal fluoroscopic examination on inspiration and expiration while in a standing position (F-S) and in right lateral recumbency (F-RL), followed by radiographic projections obtained in right lateral recumbency. The percent variation in tracheal height during maximal inspiration and expiration was determined at 3 different locations [cervical region (CR), thoracic inlet (TI), and intrathoracic (IT) region]. When all imaging procedures and sites of measurement were considered, tracheal height varied during physiologic inspiration and expiration from 0% to 21.1%, with a mean of 4.5%. The mean percent variation in tracheal height was not significantly different among imaging modalities (F-S versus F-RL versus radiography) (P = 0.16) or measurement sites (CR versus TI versus IT) (P = 0.89). The body condition score (BCS) (P = 0.96), age (P = 0.95), and breed (P = 0.19) did not significantly influence the mean percent variation in tracheal height. The average variation in tracheal height during maximal physiological inspiration and expiration is small (< 6%) in most healthy adult small-breed dogs as assessed by fluoroscopy and radiography, although tracheal height may vary by as much as 21.1% in some healthy individuals. Inspiratory and expiratory radiographs acquired in right lateral recumbency provide an accurate assessment of tracheal height as an alternative to fluoroscopy.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Experimental evaluation of tulathromycin as a treatment for Campylobacter jejuni abortion in pregnant ewes Texto completo
2020
Yeager, Michael J. | Wu, Zuowei | Plummer, Paul J. | Sahin, Orhan | Ocal, Melda Meral | Beyi, Ashenafi F. | Changyun, Xu | Zhang, Qijing | Griffith, Ronald W.
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the efficacy of tulathromycin for prevention of abortion in pregnant ewes when administered within 24 hours after experimental inoculation with Campylobacter jejuni. ANIMALS 20 pregnant ewes between 72 and 92 days of gestation. PROCEDURES All ewes were inoculated with a field strain of C jejuni (8.5 × 108 to 10.6 × 108 CFUs, IV). Eighteen hours later, ewes received either tulathromycin (1.1 mL/45 kg [2.4 mg/kg], SC; n = 10) or sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (1.1 mL/45 kg, SC; sham; 10). Ewes were euthanized immediately after observation of vaginal bleeding, abortion, or completion of a 21-day observation period. Necropsy was performed on all ewes, and tissue specimens were obtained for bacterial culture and histologic examination. RESULTS 1 sham-treated ewe and 1 tulathromycin-treated ewe developed signs of severe endotoxemia and were euthanized within 24 hours after C jejuni inoculation. Seven sham-treated and 2 tulathromycin-treated ewes developed vaginal bleeding or aborted and were euthanized between 4 and 21 days after C jejuni inoculation. The proportion of tulathromycin-treated ewes that developed vaginal bleeding or aborted during the 21 days after C jejuni inoculation (2/9) was significantly less than that for the sham-treated ewes (7/9). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that administration of tulathromycin to pregnant ewes following exposure to C jejuni was effective in decreasing the number of C jejuni–induced abortions. Because of concerns regarding the development of macrolide resistance among Campylobacter strains, prophylactic use of tulathromycin in sheep is not recommended.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Assessment of two augmentation techniques on the mechanical properties of titanium cannulated bone screws Texto completo
2020
Mulon, Pierre-Yves | Zarzosa, Michael | Harper, David (David Paul) | Anderson, David E.
OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2 augmentation techniques on the mechanical properties of titanium cannulated bone screws. SAMPLE 33 titanium cannulated bone screws (outer diameter, 6.5 mm; guide channel diameter, 3.6 mm). PROCEDURES 11 screws were allocated to each of 3 groups. The guide channel of each screw was filled with polymethyl methacrylate bone cement alone (OCS group) or in combination with a 3.2-mm-diameter orthopedic pin (PCS group) or remained unmodified (control group) before mechanical testing. Each screw underwent a single-cycle 3-point bending test to failure with a monotonic loading rate of 2.5 mm/min. Failure was defined as an acute decrease in resistance to load of ≥ 20% or a bending deformation of 15 mm. Mechanical properties were determined for each screw and compared among the 3 groups. RESULTS All screws in the control and OCS groups and 1 screw in the PCS group broke during testing; a 15-mm bending deformation was achieved for the remaining 10 screws in the PCS group. Maximum load and load at failure differed significantly among the 3 groups. Stiffness and load at yield for the PCS group were significantly greater than those for the control and OCS groups but did not differ between the control and OCS groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Use of bone cement and an orthopedic pin to fill the guide channel of cannulated screws significantly increased the strength of the construct, but ex vivo and in vivo studies are necessary before this augmentation technique can be recommended for clinical patients.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Correlation of Activity Data in Normal Dogs to Distance Traveled Texto completo
2020
Eskander, Bishoy S. | Barbar, Megan | Evans, Richard B. | Enomoto, Mastaka | Lascelles, B. Duncan X. | Conzemius, Michael G.
The objective of this study was to explore the mathematical relationships between independent variables (patient morphometrics and treadmill speed) and dependent variables (accelerometer or pedometer output) when evaluating data from accelerometers and pedometers in dogs. Twenty dogs took part in 3 randomized activities, consisting of exercise on a treadmill at 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 m/s for a total distance of 1 km at each speed. Dogs simultaneously wore both an accelerometer and a pedometer. Statistical analysis used multiple regression models to discover the relationships between independent and dependent variables. A formula was developed to predict the distance traveled by a dog based on its morphometrics and activity monitor output. Shoulder height had stronger correlations to accelerometer and pedometer outputs than other morphometric variables. As shoulder height increased, all accelerometer and pedometer outputs decreased. As treadmill speed increased, both accelerometer and pedometer step counts decreased, while accelerometer activity counts increased. According to a formula derived to predict the total distance traveled using patient shoulder height and accelerometer or pedometer output, pedometer steps were the most accurate predictor of distance traveled. Accelerometer steps were less accurate when using the same model. Accelerometer activity counts did not reveal a meaningful predictive formula. The results of this study indicate that patient morphometrics and treadmill speed (as a measure of intensity) influenced accelerometer and pedometer data. The pedometer data more precisely and accurately estimated the distance traveled based on step counts and patient shoulder height. In normal dogs, accelerometer and pedometer steps may reasonably estimate distance traveled.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Pharmacokinetics of an intravenous constant rate infusion of a morphine-lidocaine-ketamine combination in Holstein calves undergoing umbilical herniorrhaphy Texto completo
2020
Hartnack, Amanda K. | Niehaus, Andrew J. | Lakritz, Jeffrey | Coetzee, Johann F. | Kleinhenz, Michael D.
OBJECTIVE To describe the pharmacokinetics of morphine, lidocaine, and ketamine associated with IV administration of a constant rate infusion (CRI) of a morphine-lidocaine-ketamine (MLK) combination to calves undergoing umbilical herniorrhaphy. ANIMALS 20 weaned Holstein calves with umbilical hernias. PROCEDURES Calves were randomly assigned to receive a CRI of an MLK solution (0.11 mL/kg/h; morphine, 4.8 μg/kg/h; lidocaine, 2.1 mg/kg/h; and ketamine, 0.42 mg/kg/h) for 24 hours (MLK group) or 2 doses of flunixin meglumine (1.1 mg/kg, IV, q 24 h) and a CRI of saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (0.11 mL/kg/h) for 24 hours (control group). For all calves, the CRI was begun after anesthesia induction. Blood samples were obtained immediately before and at predetermined times for 120 hours after initiation of the assigned treatment. Noncompartmental analysis was used to estimate pharmacokinetic parameters for the MLK group. RESULTS During the CRI, steady-state serum concentrations were achieved for lidocaine and ketamine, but not morphine. Mean terminal half-life was 4.1, 0.98, and 1.55 hours and area under the concentration-time curve was 41, 14,494, and 7,426 h•μg/mL for morphine, lidocaine, and ketamine, respectively. After the CRI, the mean serum drug concentration at steady state was 6.3, 616.7, and 328 ng/mL for morphine, lidocaine, and ketamine, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE During the CRI of the MLK solution, steady-state serum concentrations were achieved for lidocaine and ketamine, but not morphine, likely owing to the fairly long half-life of morphine. Kinetic analyses of MLK infusions in cattle are necessary to establish optimal dosing protocols.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Visual representations of canine cardiac arrhythmias with Lorenz (Poincaré) plots Texto completo
2020
DeProspero, Dylan J. | Adin, Darcy B.
OBJECTIVE To characterize the patterns associated with Lorenz plots (LPs) or Poincaré plots derived from the Holter recordings of dogs with various cardiac rhythms. ANIMALS 77 dogs with 24-hour Holter recordings. PROCEDURES A 1-hour period from the Holter recordings from each of 20 dogs without arrhythmias and from each of 57 dogs with arrhythmias (10 each with supraventricular premature complexes, complex supraventricular ectopy, ventricular premature complexes, complex ventricular ectopy, and atrial fibrillation, and 7 with high-grade second-degree atrioventricular block) were used to generate the LPs. Patterns depicted in the LPs were described. RESULTS Arrhythmia-free Holter recordings yielded LPs with a Y-shaped pattern and variable silent zones. Recordings with single premature complexes yielded LPs with double side and triple side lobes. Complex ectopy was denoted by dots clustered in the lower left corner of the LPs. The LPs of recordings with atrial fibrillation had fan patterns consistent with a nonlinear relationship between atrial electrical impulses and atrioventricular nodal conduction. The recordings with atrioventricular block yielded LPs with island patterns consistent with variable atrioventricular nodal conduction. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Distinct LP patterns were identified for common cardiac rhythms of dogs, supportive of nonrandom mechanisms as the cause of most rhythms. Visual interpretation of an LP generated from a Holter recording may aid in determining the arrhythmia type and understanding the arrhythmia's mechanism in dogs and other species.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]The effect of inspired oxygen concentration on oxidative stress biomarkers in dogs under inhalation anesthesia Texto completo
2020
Chongphaibulpatana, Patarakit | Kumagai, Yuu | Fukui, Daisuke | Katayama, Masaaki | Uzuka, Yuji
This study investigated oxidative stress biomarkers at 3 different oxygen concentrations in dogs under general anesthesia to determine whether high-concentration oxygen increases oxidative stress. Six healthy beagles were randomly assigned to receive 3 anesthesia protocols (inhalation of 40%, 60%, and 100% oxygen) during 3 hours of general anesthesia with sevoflurane, with at least one week in between each protocol. For each experiment, blood samples were collected at 0, 3, 6, and 24 hours after inhalation of oxygen. Derivatives of reactive oxygen metabolites, biochemical antioxidant potential, superoxide dismutase, and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine in the blood did not significantly differ among the 3 groups at any time point. This study is the first comparing high concentrations of oxygen with low concentrations of oxygen for anesthesia in dogs. According to our findings, 100% oxygen may not alter the oxidative stress level in dogs during general anesthesia with sevoflurane for 3 hours.
Mostrar más [+] Menos [-]Evaluation of the thermal antinociceptive effects of hydromorphone hydrochloride after intramuscular administration to orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica) Texto completo
2020
Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, David | Douglas, Jamie D. | Beaufrere, Hugues | Paul-Murphy, Joanne R.
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the thermal antinociceptive effects of hydromorphone hydrochloride after IM administration to orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica). ANIMALS 8 healthy adult parrots (4 males and 4 females). PROCEDURES In a randomized crossover study, each bird received hydromorphone (0.1, 1, and 2 mg/kg) and saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (1 mL/kg; control) IM, with a 7-day interval between treatments. Each bird was assigned an agitation-sedation score, and the thermal foot withdrawal threshold (TFWT) was measured at predetermined times before and after treatment administration. Adverse effects were also monitored. The TFWT, agitation-sedation score, and proportion of birds that developed adverse effects were compared among treatments over time. RESULTS Compared with the mean TFWT for the control treatment, the mean TFWT was significantly increased at 0.5, 1.5, and 3 hours and 1.5, 3, and 6 hours after administration of the 1- and 2-mg/kg hydromorphone doses, respectively. Significant agitation was observed at 0.5, 1.5, and 3 hours after administration of the 1 - and 2-mg/kg hydromorphone doses. Other adverse effects observed after administration of the 1- and 2-mg/kg doses included miosis, ataxia, and nausea-like behavior (opening the beak and moving the tongue back and forth). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Although the 1- and 2-mg/kg hydromorphone doses appeared to have antinociceptive effects, they also caused agitation, signs of nausea, and ataxia. Further research is necessary to evaluate administration of lower doses of hydromorphone and other types of stimulation to better elucidate the analgesic and adverse effects of the drug in psittacine species.
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