A pre-diabetes syndrome induced by endocrine disruptors (ED) was recently demonstrated in the model amphibian Silurana (Xenopus) tropicalis and was suggested to be a potential cause of amphibian population decline. However, such effects have not been found in wild type frogs exposed to ED and the capacity of amphibians to physiologically develop diabetes under natural conditions has not been confirmed. This study showed that a high fat diet (HFD) model displaying the important characteristics of mammal HFD models including glucose intolerance, insulin resistance and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) can be developed with green frogs (Pelophylax spp.). Wild green frogs exposed to 10 μg L⁻¹ benzo [a]pyrene (BaP) for 18 h also displayed several characteristics of the pre-diabetes phenotype previously observed in Xenopus including glucose intolerance, gluconeogenesis activation and insulin resistance. The study results confirmed that metabolic disorders induced by ED in wild green frogs are typical of the pre-diabetes phenotype and could serve as a starting point for field studies to determine the role of ED in the decline of amphibian populations. From an environmental perspective, the response of wild green frogs to different ED (10 μg L⁻¹) suggests that a simple glucose-tolerance test could be used on wild anurans to identify bodies of water polluted with metabolic disruptors that could affect species fitness.

There is a scarcity of studies on the interactions between heavy metals and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Using a variety of statistical approaches, we investigated the impact of three common heavy metals on liver enzymes and NAFLD markers in a Korean adult population. We observed that cadmium, mercury, and lead all demonstrated positive correlations with liver enzymes and NAFLD indices. Our findings were mostly robust in secondary analysis, which included three novel mixture modeling approaches (WQS, qgcomp, and BKMR) as well as in silico investigation of molecular mechanisms (genes, miRNAs, biological processes, pathways, and illnesses). The 16 genes interacted with a mixture of heavy metals, which was linked to the development of NAFLD. Co-expression was discovered in nearly half of the interactions between the 18 NAFLD-linked genes. Key molecular pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of NAFLD generated by the heavy metal combination include activated oxidative stress, altered lipid metabolism, and increased cytokines and inflammatory response. Heavy metal exposure levels were related to liver enzymes and NAFLD indices, and cutoff criteria were revealed. More studies are needed to validate our findings and gain knowledge about the effects of chronic combined heavy metal exposure on adult and child liver function and the likelihood of developing NAFLD. To reduce the occurrence of NAFLD, early preventative and regulatory actions (half-yearly screening of workers at high-risk facilities; water filtration; avoiding excessive amounts of seafood, etc.) should be taken.

We aimed to investigate the associations between chemical mixtures and the risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in this study. A total of 127 exposure analytes within 13 chemical mixture groups were included in the current analysis. Associations between chemical mixture exposure and prevalence of NAFLD were examined using weighted quantile sum (WQS) regressions. NAFLD was diagnosed by hepatic steatosis index (HSI) and US fatty liver index (USFLI). In USFLI-NAFLD cohort, chemical mixtures positively associated with NAFLD development included urinary metals (OR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.04–1.16), urinary perchlorate, nitrate and thiocyanate (OR: 1.06, 95% CI: 1.02–1.11), urinary pesticides (OR: 1.24, 95% CI: 1.09–1.40), urinary phthalates (OR: 1.18, 95% CI: 1.09–1.28), urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (OR: 1.08, 95% CI: 1.03–1.14), and urinary pyrethroids, herbicides, and organophosphate pesticides metabolites (OR: 1.32, 95% CI: 1.15–1.51). All of the above mixtures were also statistically significant in WQS regressions in the HSI-NAFLD cohort. Besides, some chemical mixtures were only significant in HSI-NAFLD cohort including urinary arsenics (OR: 1.07, 95% CI: 1.02–1.12), urinary phenols (OR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.02–1.19) and blood polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (OR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.03–1.17). Three types of chemical mixtures only showed significant associations in the healthy lifestyle score (HLS) of 3–4 subgroup, including urinary perchlorate, nitrate and thiocyanate, urinary PAHs and blood polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins. In conclusion, the exposure of specific types of chemical mixtures were associated with elevated NAFLD risk, and the effects of some chemical mixtures on NAFLD development exhibited differences in participants with different lifestyles.

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that the general population’s exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) substitutes is ubiquitous. Bisphenol F (BPF), one of the main BPA substitutes, is increasingly replacing BPA in plastics for food and beverage applications. Accumulating evidence suggests that BPA exposure is associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)-like changes. However, the potential effects of BPF on lipid homeostasis remain poorly understood. In the present study, an epidemiological analysis with LC-MS-MS revealed that the BPF concentrations in the serum of NAFLD patients were significantly higher than those in a control group. Supporting this result, using Oil Red O, BODIPY 493/503, LipidTox Deep Red staining and gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) assays, we found that BPF exposure induced NAFLD-like changes, with obvious lipid droplet deposition, triglyceride (TG) and fatty acids increase in mouse livers. Meanwhile, lipid droplet deposition and TG increase induced by BPF were also observed in HepG2 cells, accompanied by autophagic flux blockade, including autophagosome accumulation and the decreased degradation of SQSTM1/p62. Using adenoviruses dual-reporter plasmid RFP-GFP-LC3, RFP-GFP-PLIN2 transfection, AO staining, and EGFR degradation assays, we demonstrated that BPF treatment impaired lysosomal degradative capacity, since BPF treatment obviously impaired lysosomal acidification, manifested as decreased lysosomal hydrolase cathepsin L (CTSL) and mature cathepsin D (CTSD) in HepG2 and mouse liver issues. Additionally, v-ATPase D, a multi-subunit enzyme that mediates acidification of eukaryotic intracellular organelles, significantly decreased after BPF exposure in both the vitro and in vivo studies.This study ascertained a novel mechanism involving dysfunctional of lysosomal degradative capacity induced by BPF, which contributes to lipophagic disorders and causes lipid droplet deposition. This work provides evidence that lysosomes may be a target organelle where BPF exerts its potential toxicity; therefore, novel intervention strategies targeting lysosome are promising for BPF-induced NAFLD-like changes.

Interactions between the intestine and the liver, the so-called ‘gut-liver axis’, play a crucial role in the onset of hepatic steatosis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. However, not much is known about the impact of environmental pollutants on the gut-liver axis and consequent hepatic steatosis. Bisphenol A (BPA), a widely used plasticiser, is an important environmental contaminant that affects gut microbiota. We hypothesised that BPA induces hepatic steatosis by promoting gut microbiota dysbiosis and activating the gut-liver axis. In this study, male CD-1 mice were fed with diet containing BPA (50 μg/kg body weight/day) for 24 weeks. Dietary exposure to BPA increased lipid contents and fat accumulation in the liver. Analysis of 16 S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that the diversity of gut microbiota reduced and the composition of gut microbiota was altered in the BPA-fed mice. Further, the abundance of Proteobacteria, a marker of dysbacteria, increased, whereas the abundance of Akkermansia, a gut microbe associated with increased gut barrier function and reduced inflammation, markedly decreased. Expression levels of intestinal tight junction proteins (zona occludens-1 and occludin) also decreased drastically, leading to increased intestinal permeability and elevated levels of endotoxins. Furthermore, BPA up-regulated the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in the liver and increased the production of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β, interleukin-18, tumour necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6. Take together, our work indicated that dietary intake of BPA induced hepatic steatosis, and this was closely related to dysbiosis of gut microbiota, elevated endotoxin levels, and increased liver inflammation through the TLR4/NF-κB pathway.

This work aimed at predicting the toxic effects of phenolic compounds in Ba River on the health of female sharpbelly (Hemiculter lucidus) by the de novo transcriptomic analysis of the liver. Sharpbelly, a native fish living in freshwater ecosystem of East Asia, were sampled upstream, near, and downstream of a wastewater discharge to the Ba river. Based on the occurrence of bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenol (NP), and 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP) in the water and fish sampled from each site, up-, mid-, and down-stream were interpreted as control, high, and low treatment groups, respectively. In the mid-stream group the Fulton’s condition factor (CF) and body weight were remarkably increased by approximate 20%; the gonado-somatic index (GSI) and hepatosomatic index (HSI) in mid-stream fish showed a similar increasing trend but lacking of statistical difference. Exposure to wastewater effluent caused 160 and 162 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in up-mid and down-mid stream groups, respectively. Two sets of DEGs were primarily enriched in the signaling pathways of drug metabolism, endocrine system, cellular process, and lipid metabolism in the mid-stream sharpbelly, which may alter the fish behavior, disrupt the reproductive function, and lead to hypothyroidism, hepatic steatosis, etc. Taken together, our results linked the disrupted signaling pathways with activities of phenolic compounds to predict the potential effects of wastewater effluent on the health of wild fish.

Previous in vitro studies have implied that triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) may act as an obesogen. However, its specific contributions to the progression of obesity and related metabolic diseases are still unclear in vivo in mice. In this study, we evaluated the effects of in utero and lactational exposure to three doses of TPHP (10, 100, and 1000 μg/kg BW) on obesity and metabolic dysfunctions in adult male mice fed a low-fat diet (LFD) or high-fat diet (HFD), by examining body weight, liver weight, histopathology, blood biochemistry, gene expression, and gut microbiota compositions and metabolic functions. Results showed that TPHP exposure led to increased body weight, liver weight, fat mass, hepatic steatosis, impaired glucose homeostasis, and insulin resistance, and mRNA levels of genes involved in lipid metabolism, especially lipogenesis and lipid accumulation, were significantly altered by TPHP treatment. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis further supported the changes in fatty acid composition. Intestinal flora measurements by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and ¹H NMR based fecal metabolomics indicated that TPHP treatment modulated gut microbiome composition and influenced host-gut co-metabolism, especially for bile acids and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These results suggest that fetal exposure to TPHP can promote the development of obesity and metabolic dysfunctions in adult mice.

Perchlorate is a pervasive, water-soluble contaminant that competitively inhibits the sodium/iodide symporter, reducing the available iodide for thyroid hormone synthesis. Insufficient iodide uptake can lead to hypothyroidism and metabolic syndromes. Because metabolism, obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are tightly linked, we hypothesized that perchlorate would act as an obesogen and cause NAFLD via accumulation of lipids in liver of developing threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We performed an upshift/downshift exposure regime (clean water to perchlorate treated water or perchlorate treated water to clean water) on stickleback embryos at two concentrations (30 mg/L and 100 mg/L) plus the control (0 mg/L) over the course of 305 days. Adult stickleback were euthanized, H&E stained and analyzed for liver morphology. Specifically, we counted the number of lipid droplets, and measured the area of each droplet and the total lipid area of a representative section of liver. We found that perchlorate treated fish had more and larger lipid droplets, and a larger percentage of lipid in their liver than control fish. These data indicate that perchlorate causes NAFLD and hepatic steatosis in stickleback at concentrations commonly found at contaminated sites. These data also indicate the potential of perchlorate to act as an obesogen. Future studies should investigate the obesogenic capacity of perchlorate by examining organ specific lipid accumulation and whether perchlorate induces these effects at concentrations commonly found in drinking water. Work is also needed to determine the mechanisms by which perchlorate induces lipid accumulation.

Glyphosate is the active ingredient in Roundup, one of the most popular herbicides in the world, and its toxicity has caused increasing concerns. The present study aims to investigate the toxic effects of prenatal exposure to pure glyphosate or Roundup on lipid metabolism in offspring. During gestational days (GDs), ICR mice (from Institute of Cancer Research) were given distilled water, 0.5% glyphosate solution (w/v, 0.5 g/100 ml) or 0.5%-glyphosate Roundup solution orally. The livers and serum samples of the offspring were collected on gestational day 19 (GD19), postnatal day 7 (PND7) and PND21. The results showed a significant decrease in the body weight and obvious hepatic steatosis with excessive lipid droplet formation in offspring. Moreover, the concentrations of lipids such as triglycerides (TGs), total cholesterol (T-CHO), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterols (LDL-C) increased to a significant extent in both the serum and livers. Furthermore, there were significant differences in the expression levels of the genes SREBP1C, SREBP2, Fasn, Hmgcr, Hmgcs and PPARα, which are related to lipid biosynthesis or catabolism in the liver. These results demonstrate that chronic prenatal exposure to glyphosate can result in lipid metabolism disruption in the offspring of mice, as glyphosate exerts a negative influence on the expression of lipogenesis genes.

More and more evidence indicates that persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a risk factor for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Phenanthrene (Phe) is a kind of POP which existed extensively in the environment, but whose toxicity on mammals has so far received less focus. Subcutaneously injection of Phe (0.5, 5, 50 μg/kg) for 21 days induced significant NAFLD/NASH symptoms in new born rats. Exposure to environmental levels of Phe decreased body weight and liver-somatic index; impaired histology of liver; influenced the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) signaling and lipid metabolism in liver; stimulated oxidative stress in the rats' liver; induced the variation of NFκB pathway and liver inflammatory response; and caused liver fibrosis via transforming growth factor β1 (tgfβ1). We speculated that the subcutaneously injected Phe was transferred to the liver through blood circulation, which may have induced the elevation of PPARγ directly or indirectly, leading to liver steatosis. Excess lipid, acting as the first hit, stimulated the second hit factors - oxidative stress, inflammatory response and lipid peroxidation, and finally resulted in steatohepatitis and liver fibrosis.