Background, aim, and scope Anti-tumour agents and their metabolites are largely excreted into effluent, along with other pharmaceuticals. In the past, investigations have focused on the input and analysis of pharmaceuticals in surface and ground water. The two oxazaphosphorine compounds, cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide are important cytostatic drugs used in the chemotherapy of cancer and in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Their mechanism of action, involving metabolic activation and unspecific alkylation of nucleophilic compounds, accounts for genotoxic and carcinogenic effects described in the literature and is reason for environmental concern. The anti-tumour agents cyclophosphamide (CP) and ifosfamide (IF) were not biodegraded in biodegradation tests. They were not eliminated in municipal sewage treatment plants. Degradation by photochemically formed HO radicals may be of some relevance only in shallow, clear, and nitrate-rich water bodies but could be further exploited for elimination of these compounds by advanced oxidation processes, i.e. in a treatment of hospital waste water. Therefore, CP and IF are assumed to persist in the aquatic environment and to enter drinking water via surface water. The risk to humans from input of CP and IF into surface water is not known. Materials and methods The local and regional, i.e. nationwide predicted environmental concentration (PEClocal, PECregional) of CP and IF was calculated for German surface water. Both compounds were measured in hospital effluents, and in the influent and effluent of a municipal treatment plant. Additionally, published concentrations in the effluent of sewage treatment plants and surface water were used for risk assessment. Excretion rates were taken into account. For a worst-case scenario, maximum possible ingestion of CP or IF by drinking 2 L a day of unprocessed surface water over a life span of 70 years was calculated for adults. Elimination in drinking water processing was neglected, as no data is available. This intake was compared with intake during anti-cancer treatment. Results and discussion Intake of CP and IF for anti-cancer treatment is typically 10 g within a few months. Under such conditions, a relative risk of 1.5 for the carcinogenic compounds CP and IF is reported in the literature. In the worst case, the maximum possible intake by drinking water is less than 10⁻³ (IF) and 10⁻⁵ (CP) of this amount, based on highest measured local concentrations. On a nationwide average, the factor is approx. 10⁻⁶ or less. Conclusions The additional intake of CP and IF due to their emission into surface water and its use without further treatment as drinking water is low compared to intake within a therapy. This approach has shortcomings. It illustrates the current lack of methodology and knowledge for the specific risk assessment of carcinogenic pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. IF and CP are directly reacting with the DNA. Therefore, with respect to health effects a safe threshold concentration for these compounds cannot be given. The resulting risk is higher for newborns and children than for adults. Due to the lack of data the risk for newborns and children cannot be assessed fully. The data presented here show that according to present knowledge the additional risk of cancer cannot be fully excluded, especially with respect to children. Due to the shortage of data for effects of CP and IF in low doses during a whole lifespan, possible effects were assessed using data of high doses of CP and IF within short-term ingestion, i.e. therapy. This remains an unresolved issue. Anyway, the risk assessment performed here could give a rough measure of the risks on the one hand and the methodological shortcomings on the other hand which are connected to the assessment of the input of genotoxic and carcinogenic pharmaceuticals such as CP and IF into the aquatic environment. Therefore, we recommend to take measures to reduce the input of CP and IF and other carcinogenic pharmaceuticals. We hope that our manuscript further stimulates the discussion about the human risk assessment for carcinogenic pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Recommendations and perspectives CP and IF are carcinogens. With respect to newborn and children, reduction of the emission of CP and IF into effluent and surface water is recommended at least as a precautionary measure. The collection of unused and outdated drugs is a suitable measure. Collection of patients' excreta as a measure of input reduction is not recommended. Data suitable for the assessment of the risk for newborn and children should be collected in order to perform a risk assessment for these groups. This can stimulate discussion and give new insights into risk assessment for pharmaceuticals in the environment. Our study showed that in the long term, effective risk management for the reduction of the input of CP and IF are recommendable.

Purpose In this study, seasonal variations in the concentration profile of four analgesics and one lipid regulator were monitored on their way from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, along a river, and into a lake. Methods From December 2007 to December 2008, water samples were collected monthly (n = 12) from an upstream point, the effluent, four downstream points of the WWTP, and at the point where the river merges with the lake, and the concentrations of ibuprofen, naproxen, bezafibrate, diclofenac, and ketoprofen were determined. The analytical methodology involved solid-phase extraction of the target compounds from water samples followed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry for compound separation and detection. Results The studied pharmaceuticals were found in the effluent at concentrations ranging from 31 to 1,852 ng l⁻¹ depending on the season. In the river and lake, the concentrations were much lower (6-400 ng l⁻¹) mainly due to dilution but also to a season-dependent contribution from natural transformation processes. The mean mass flow of all analgesics was highest during winter while the highest mean mass flow of the lipid regulator bezafibrate was observed in spring. Conclusions The WWTP is the main source of the target compounds in the aquatic environment. The observed winter accumulation signifies the importance of natural transformation processes, which can only be estimated based on mass flow data, on the fate of pharmaceuticals in the environment.

Background, aim, and scope In the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC, environmental objectives for the proper quality of inland, surface, transitional, coastal, and ground waters have been set. Member states are required to identify chemical pollutants of significance in the water bodies, to establish emission control measures, and to achieve quality standards. A specific category of pollutants are the compounds that may possess endocrine-related functions known as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). This means that member states have the obligation to take action in order to prevent human exposure to these compounds via aquatic environment. The objective of this research was to study the occurrence and distribution of phenolic and steroid EDCs in inland waters and wastewaters discharged in the area of Thermaikos Gulf, Thessaloniki, Northern Greece. Materials and methods Samples were collected from three rivers, four streams, and four municipal and industrial wastewaters from the area of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece, during the period 2005-2006. The samples were analyzed for 14 EDCs (nonylphenol, octylphenol, their mono- and di-ethoxylate oligomers, bisphenol A, estrone, 17α-estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estriol, mestranol, and 17α-ethynylestradiol). The compounds were recovered by solid phase extraction and ultrasonic extraction from the dissolved phase and particulate phase, respectively, and determined by employing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results Results revealed the presence of phenolic EDCs (NP, NP1EO, NP2EO, tOP, OP1EO, OP2EO, and BPA) in all water and wastewater samples. Steroid EDCs were not found at detectable concentrations. The relationships between field partition coefficients of EDCs and concentration of total suspended solids, dissolved, and particulate organic carbon were investigated. Discussion Rivers exhibited concentrations of EDCs similar to minimally impacted surface waters worldwide. The concentrations of NP and OP occasionally exceeded the environmental quality criteria proposed for inland waters. The concentrations of EDCs in streams exhibited wide variations due to low flow rate in these systems and the impact of wastewaters from various pollution sources. Wastewater from tannery activities showed extremely high concentrations of NP, whereas relatively high concentrations of EDCs were determined in effluents from the industrial wastewater treatment plant. Field partition coefficients of EDCs are negatively correlated with concentrations of total suspended solids and dissolved organic carbon and positively correlated with particulate organic carbon. Conclusions The examined rivers (Aliakmon, Axios, and Loudias) exhibited concentrations of EDCs similar to minimally impacted surface waters worldwide. However, special attention should be paid to these systems since the concentrations for NP and OP occasionally were above the proposed quality standards, revealing the impact of urban, industrial, and agricultural activities. High concentrations of EDCs were determined in streams, urban, and industrial wastewater posing significant risk to the aquatic environment they discharged. Recommendations and perspectives The occurrence of EDCs in inland waters and wastewaters discharged to Thermaikos Gulf results in an increased risk to the marine environment. Thus, these systems should be regularly monitored, especially for NP, OP, and BPA that are considered as priority hazardous compounds in the Water Framework Directive.

Background, aim and scope The climatic characteristic is a major parameter affecting on the distribution variation of organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The Tumen River is located in Northeastern of China. The winter era lasts for more than 5 months in a year, and the river water was frozen and covered by ice phase. Coal combustion is an essential heating source in the Tumen River Basin. The objective of this research is to study ice phase effect on the seasonal variation of PAHs in the Tumen River environment. Materials and methods Samples were collected from 13 sites along the River in March, July, October, and December of 2008. In addition, the ice sample, under ice water and air particulate were also collected in winter. The samples were analyzed for 16 PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, beazo[a]anthene, chrysene, beazo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene, and benzo(ghi)perylene). The compounds were extracted from the water samples and solid samples using LLE and Soxhlet extraction technique, respectively, and it is determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results and discussion Among 16 PAHs, fluorene, phenanthrene, and pyrene were found to be present in high concentrations and at high detection frequencies. The total concentration of PAHs in the water, particulate, sediment and ice phase ranged from 35.1-1.05 × 10³ ng L⁻¹, 25.4-817 ng L⁻¹, 117-562 ng g⁻¹and 62.8-136 ng g⁻¹, respectively. The levels of PAHs were generally higher in spring than other seasons. The ice phase in winter acts like a major reservoir of the pollutants and it is major contributor on the seasonal variation of PAHs in Tumen River. The PAHs found in water, particulate, and sediment in the Tumen River were possibly derived from similar pollution sources a proposition based on the compositions and isomer ratios of PAHs. Conclusions The distribution of PAHs was showed clear seasonal variation in the Tumen River environment, the ice phase and air pollution look like an important factor affecting on the seasonal variation. Recommendations and perspectives The ice phase as an important factor affecting on the seasonal variation of PAHs in Tumen River environment. Further studies regarding the effects of air pollution on the river and the mechanisms of migration and transformation of them in the environment are currently being conducted in our laboratory.

Background, aim and scope Salt efflorescences markedly contribute to the alteration and deterioration of building material, in this case the Villamayor Sandstone of the facades in the Old Town of Salamanca, Spain (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization world cultural heritage site). A better understanding of the mechanisms of salt formation and the involved elements would allow more precise measures in monument conservation. The magnesium which is required for the salt precipitation originates from selective processes of hydrolysis. The source of sulphate, however, is presently not as clear. Identifying the source of the sulphur was the main goal of this research. Isotope ratio measurement of δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O was used to clarify the origins of Mg sulphate salts. Materials and methods A total of 56 Mg sulphate samples were collected in two different seasons (July and November 2005) from monuments of the Old Town of Salamanca. These sampled salt efflorescences were analysed for δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O by mass spectrometry. A ‘dual-inlet' type by VG Isotech was used for δ³⁴S and continuous flow type Isoprime by GV Instruments for δ¹⁸O. Samples were measured in triplicates and standard material was analysed for quality control. Results δ³⁴S values range between 3.6‰ and 15.4‰ with a median value of 10.2‰ for the July samples and of 10.1‰ for November samples. The results of the sulphur ratios hint towards a bimodal distribution (with modes at δ³⁴S = 6‰ and 12‰) for winter samples, which is less obvious during summer. δ¹⁸O values range from 7.1‰ to 41.1‰. However, most values range from 7.1‰ to 20.8‰, whereas only few summer samples show outliers towards higher δ¹⁸O values. The median δ¹⁸O value for July samples is 15.5‰ and for November samples 14.6‰. Discussion The isotopic ratios of the analysed sulphate samples were compared with values of possible source materials. Sulphur sources in the case of Salamanca are barites from the Villamayor Sandstone itself, sea spray, sulphides from regional rocks, biogenic sulphur (soil, avian excreta), as well as sulphur from anthropogenic sources such as building materials (especially mortar) or traffic exhaust. Salamanca is a representative site for non-industrial cities with no heavy industry and thus, there are no significant SO₂ emissions from industry. Conclusions Based on the measured isotopic ratios, it was ascertained that more than one sole sulphur source is present. However, based on additional information about the source material and possible transport ways, some sources could be excluded whereas others only played a minor role. Finally, there is strong indication that the main sulphur source is atmospheric pollution and the exhaust emissions from vehicles in particular, while mortar as building material also contributes to a minor extent. The δ¹⁸O values support this hypothesis. Moreover, the reported δ¹⁸O values are a strong indicator of the secondary nature of the Mg sulphates. Isotope ratio measurement and especially the combined use of δ³⁴S and δ¹⁸O values have proven to be a good instrument in clarifying the origin of salt efflorescences on buildings. Recommendations and perspectives Further studies should investigate more closely the isotopic composition of atmospheric aerosols in Salamanca in order to get a more detailed knowledge about the main sulphur sources, as well as to quantify the relation between the isotopic values and the amount and mineralogical form of the salts.

With the aim of developing new uses of sewage sludge, a byproduct of municipal wastewater treatment plants, in the present work the calcination at 900° C of this waste with or without CaCO3 added was performed; the sludge was obtained from a local municipal wastewater treatment plant. The purpose was to study the ability of the CaCO3 to capture SO 2 during the incineration. The resulting ashes were reactivated at different experimental conditions to obtain desulfurant sorbents to be used in a further desulfurization process at low tempreature. The humidity, total solids and fixed and volatile solids were determined in the sludge with and without CaCO3 added. The elementary analysis of the dry sludge and of the calcinated was obtained. Results show that the C percentage highly decreases in the incineration due to the release of the volatile carbon compounds. The sulphur percentage increases principally due to the release of the volatile matter. The resulting ashes with or without CaCO3 added were studied by Thermogravimetry. T.G. curves show that not all the CaCO3 was calcinated mainly when the amout of CaCO3 added was high. The specific surface area of the dry sludge, of the ashes and of the sorbents prepared by reacitivation of the ashes was also determined | We are thankful to MICINN for financial support of this work under Porject MAT 2009-10727

An increasing amount of scientific information is available on water pollution and its effect. Water pollution management for pollution control seldom considers the scientific information. The main objective of this paper is to review the water pollution management in Bangkok and link the entire process to the cause and effects of water pollution. Existing approaches for water pollution control primarily focuses on enforcing various standards. Respective local authorities in Bangkok have also set their own surface water quality requirement. However, the entire management approach requires further analysis in line with the present situation. This paper attempts to review the entire management approach and suggests reduction strategies, control measures/treatment systems and some preferred solutions to the water pollution management. It also covers other important measures for control. The conclusion proposes some policy recommendations on reducing pollution through effect management approach.