Objectives of this study were to compare costs and expected benefits of feed supplementation in cattle with alternative shrub legumes during the dry season using as a case study the hillsides of Central Nicaragua. The information used was gathered in a survey of 32 farms in the states of Boaco and Chontales in Central Nicaragua. The survey was designed to determine herd structure, land use patterns, milk and beef production, and use of inputs for animal nutrition, in order to estimate production, reproductive parameters and employment of family/contracted labor, as well as indicators of profitability of the alternatives under study. To calculate the economic return to the investment in alternative forages, a simulation model that applies optimization techniques through linear programming, implemented as a spreadsheet, was used to perform an ex ante evaluation of the costs and benefits of different land use alternatives and of interactions between technological components and biological productivity. The model compares the costs and benefits of the traditional feeding system versus an improved feeding system. The traditional system consists of grazing naturalized pastures (Hyparrhenia rufa) during the rainy season. In the dry season producers supplement the herd with small areas of king grass (Pennisetum spp.). The improved feeding system consists of establishing forage legumes for dry season feeding as a supplement to replace king grass during the dry season. Supplements to evaluate are the shrub legume Calliandra calothyrsus as partial replacement of the herbaceous high quality legume Vigna unguiculata, commonly known as Cowpea. Under the new feeding system, herd size can be increased by 60% due in part to the increase in stocking rate as well as to the increase in the quality of the diet offered with higher protein content. This increase in herd size raises both milk and beef output that generates an increase in farm income by 1.8 times more (i.e., from $1,314/farm/yr to $2,386). The economic return to family labor is increased by 20% to $ 5.26/day equivalent to 2.3 times higher than the local wage rate. The adoption of Vigna (Cowpea) after the harvest of maize/beans and a shrub legume as Calliandra to replace king grass seem to have the potential to significantly improve the productivity in smallholder farms. with the resulting increase in the economic return to family labor.

Characterization of the Short-eared Somali goat population around Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, was undertaken in a community-based and participatory approach. Range of participatory tools, including Focal Group Discussions, participatory mappings and transect walks, were employed to study the local community's Indigenous knowledge and practices in animal breeding. The breeding objective was defined in a participatory manner through own-flock ranking experiments. Physical description of the goat population was made based on the "key characteristics" concept used by the community to distinguish their goat type among other breeds within their migratory reach. The Issa community maintains a perception of special association towards the Short-eared Somali goat type, claiming a historic role in its development and adaptation. Local myths persistent in the community associate the origin of the Short-eared Somali goat breed with the communal ethno-history. The community generally practices selective pure breeding employing rather complex indigenous knowledge and traditional practices aimed at polishing the gene pool towards the dictates of the environment. Patchy color patterns were generally dominant (59.8%) in the goat population, while 34% of the patched goats had a unique pattern of black spots on the center core of the face and a black stripe across the spine. Goats were kept for multifaceted purposes ranging from products like milk and meat to functions in socio-cultural and financial state of affairs. The production system was characterized with lack of feed supplementation and rangelands provide the only source of feed throughout the year. Although the production environment was characterized with recurrent droughts and high prevalence of goat diseases, goats were found to have significant contributions to the livelihood of the Issa pastoralists in the study area.

The objective of this study was to assess the carcass characteristics of two goat breed types under different durations of feedlot management. Forty eight yearling intact male Borana (n=24) and Arsi-Bale (n=24) goats were used in a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement, the factors being breed-type (Borana and Arsi-bale) and feeding days (90, 120 and 150). The goats were slaughtered after 18 hours fasting to evaluate the various carcass traits. The carcasses were separated into leg, lion, rack, shoulder and neck and breast and shank primal cuts. The Borana goats possessed heavier live weight, empty body weight, carcass weight and length than the Arsi-Bale goats in the feedlot environment. Dressing percentage varied from 41.0 to 45.9% for both goat breed types. Borana had greater rib eye area than Arsi-Bale goats for 120 (42.9±3.99) and 150 (47.3±1.28) feeding days. Back fat thickness was higher for both breed-types for 150 days feedlot feeding. The highest bone proportion was 30.9% for Arsi-Bale goats while the lowest was 25.7% for Borana goats. The percentage of rack fat of Borana was higher than for the Arsi-Bale goats.

The research was made in the Šušvė river basin fertilized with organic fertilizer in the vicinity of a pig complex 'Litpirma' Ltd (25.0 thousand fattening pigs per year), Šiaulėnai local administration, Radviliškis district, in 2001-2006. This article presents total nitrogen concentrations and its amounts leaching from the complex to the basin, in the field drainage water and the Šušvė River (at a distance of 11.6 km from the pig complex). In the investigated Šušvė section, biologically treated wastewater from Šiaulėnai Township and the areas fertilized with organic fertilizers comes into the river. In total, 11.8 t of nitrogen come into the river, of which 4% (0.49 t) come from the township's wastewater, and the rest major part (96% or 11.3 t) is the drainage water coming from fertilized agricultural fields. The dynamics of nitrogen concentrations both in the river and in the drainage outlet is of a seasonal nature: in winter (January – March) concentrations were higher, and in warm season (April – November) – lower. The Šušvė pollution by total nitrogen, both above and below the pig complex activities range, almost all the research period was exceeding the limit (2 mg lE-1). Due to the pig complex activities and intensive agriculture, the runoff of nitrogen pollutants increases from 14.9 to 29.3% in the Šušvė River. This proves that the processes of spontaneous purification are not intensive enough to neutralize completely the pollution from such size pig complex in this particular section of the river.

Use of solar energy increases every year. In Latvia, solar energy is used mainly by solar collectors. The main part of the solar collector is the absorber, but not less important is the covering material which protects the absorber from the cooling impact of the wind. This cover must be transparent for solar radiation, but opaque for thermal radiation of the absorber, which is at greater wavelengths. Therefore it is important to measure absorption spectra of possible covering materials at visible and infrared wavelength ranges. Absorption spectra have been measured for several materials: glass, polythene, Plexiglas, and cells Plexiglas. Absorption spectra for all these materials are measured in three ranges: ultraviolet – visible (UV – VIS): 250 – 1000 nm; near infrared (NIR): 700 – 110 nm; infrared (IR): 1200 – 8000 nm. UV-VIS spectra with the ‘Ocean Optics’ device HR-4000 have been measured, but NIR and IR – with ‘Bruker’ Furje spectrometer EQUINOX 55. Evaluation of absorption spectra showed that the most suitable material (from the considered) for covering of solar collectors is Plexiglas.

Nine multiparous cows were biopsied twice – in the first and fifth week after parturition in winter 2004/2005 on the Research and Study farm Vecauce of Latvia University of Agriculture. The aim of the research was to reveal distribution of inflammatory factors and apoptosis in the cow’s endometrium in post parturition period. Haematoxylin and eosin were used for routine staining of each sample. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα, w.d. 1:100, Abcam, England), and interleukin 10 (IL10, w.d. 1:400, Abcam, England) were detected immunohistochemically (IMH), and TUNEL method was used for detection of apoptosis. Distribution of these factors and substances was determined semiquantitatively by counting positive structures in visual fields. A significant increase in the total amount of inflammatory cells, as well as in the amount of the TNFα and apoptotic cells in endometrium between the first and fifth week after parturition (p is less than 0.01) was observed. A significant positive correlation (r=0.41; p is less than 0.01) between infiltration of endometrium with neutrophils and with macrophages was detected in the first week after parturition. A mild positive correlation (r=0.52; p is less than 0.01) between neutrophils and lymphocytes, as well as between lymphocytes and macrophages (r=0.35; p is less than 0.01) was found four weeks after parturition. A mild positive correlation (p is less than 0.05) was observed between amount of inflammatory cells and TNFα (r=0.52), and number of apoptotic cells and TNFα (r=0.58). The research suggests that inflammatory factors and apoptosis intensively act during the process of involution in the cows’ endometrium from the first up to the fifth week after parturition. Intensity, amount and activity of these components show individual variations in each case.

Iodine is a mineral that is added to the table salt and found in a variety of foods. It is important for good health and, fortunately, our bodies require it in minute quantities. Iodine is part of a hormone, thyroxin, which is responsible for maintaining a person’s metabolic rate. Iodine is the basic constituent part of the hormone of the thyreoid gland. On the whole, the amount of T3 and T4 correlates with the number of the iodine atoms. Therefore, without iodine the thyreoid gland cannot synthesize hormones and, therefore, cannot function. The role of iodine intake in both of these conditions was recognized in the 20th century, and since they are fully preventable through diet, public health advocates hope to entirely eliminate them at some point. Many things are natural sources of iodine. Saltwater fish and sea vegetables, for example, both contain abundant amounts of iodine. The material can also be found in plants grown on soil which is rich in sea materials, and in animals grazed on such soils. In some regions of Latvia, however, access to iodine is limited, and conditions like goiter, is realistic of iodine deficiency situations. In Latvia, some fear exists for manufacturers of food who use iodized salt. They are afraid that it will collide with changes of colour or taste of their products and will infringe on interests of the consumer. The main question for such problems is: is it a myth or the truth? In Latvia, starting using iodine salt in manufacturing, the most important question is: ‘What quantity of iodine remains after the technological processing?‘

Emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccum SCHRANK (SCHUEBL), is an old species of cereal which has been traditionally grown in arid areas. The renewed interest in this variety has its origin in favourable quality parameters of emmer wheat grain and a beneficial effect on human organism. This article deals with a study of quality parameters and storage protein composition of 6 varieties of emmer wheat (which have been chosen from the collection of gene bank at the Research institute of Crop Production in Prague-Ruzyně and in České Budějovice). High crude protein content in grain was proved during the trials. Nevertheless, such a characteristic is not suitable for the classical bakery processing (production of leavened products). The analysed genotypes contain more than 10% of high molecular weight glutenins (HMW glutenins), approximately 70% of low molecular weight glutenins + gliadins (LMW glutenins + gliadins), and almost 20% of residual albumins and globulins. Thanks to high share of albumins and globulins, emmer wheat grain is very valuable raw material for the production of healthy diet. The level of stability of storage proteins composition destines the suitability of emmer wheat for organic and low input farming in Less Favoured Areas.

Zemgale planning region divides into two intra-regions (Zemgale 1 and Zemgale 2) by natural, soil and other agricultural resources. Each intra-region has different size of farms. The aim of the research was to find the structure of rural economy in different size farms or rural enterprises of Zemgale 1 and Zemgale 2 intra-regions. The research showed that very small farms dominate grow-plant sectors production. Medium size farms and enterprises have solid high proportion of grow-plant sector production in total production value. This proportion is even higher in biggest agricultural enterprises and companies (100 is less than or equal 250 ESU). In general author has stated that in Zemgale 1, which is the biggest agricultural production territory in Latvia, grow-plant production sectors dominate.

Recently we have been noticing words as 'sustainable development', 'environment protection', 'environmentally friendly' etc more and more often. We understand meaning of those concepts, but there are no unambiguous definitions of these words in literature. Each of these notions includes particular characterizing elements which understanding and characterizing of which make possible to detect correctness of application or context. Sustainability like entrepreneurship is a process which takes place within definite environment around it. Mutual interaction of the processes produces consequences which have to satisfy all the interested parties. Therefore, it is necessary to integrate several science branches to solve this problem- i. e. economics and ecology. Nowadays, environment issues become part of each person, institution, policy and law. Environmental questions are integrated in different fields of economics and entrepreneurship, as well. It is hard to define environmentally friendly entrepreneurship. But there is a flexible definition that could be used in different economical spheres with great variability of economical circumstances, and it is- characterised circumstances would not be secured for a long time, yet. It is complicated to define the concept since this is a value involving process. Values which are sources for idea of sustainable development are based on need to form society satisfying human interests and unthreatening future generations, necessity to secure economical growth including moral, social and ecological aspects.