An increasing number of people faces chronic water shortage, and 17% of watersheds suffer from overconsumption. Agriculture is the main water consumer globally, and irrigation comprises most of the agricultural water consumption. Irrigation more than doubled between 1960 and 2000. In many cases, water-intensive goods are produced in water-scarce countries, and virtual (irrigation) water is traded by agribusinesses. Food products potentially have an impact on local water resources in the production area. The water scarcity footprint of products can be calculated by applying the AWARE method within the life cycle assessment (LCA). AWARE is a relatively new method but is already recommended by several influential organisations (e.g. the European Commission), and it will probably therefore be applied widely in the coming years. The goal of this thesis was to study how the AWARE method compares to other water scarcity footprint methods in LCA for food products, study the water scarcity footprint of three common food products in Finland and the hotspots of the food products, and identify further LCA research needs for improving the performance of the chain and for harmonised LCA. Three food case studies were selected to assist in answering the research questions: milk (Article I), coffee (Article II), and broiler meat (Article III) produced for the Finnish market. Basic knowledge of the suitability of the AWARE method for a food product was produced in the milk case study. The water scarcity footprint of all three foodstuffs was assessed, and hotspots were identified. The interpretation of the results was supported by a detailed analysis of the challenges especially in the life cycle inventory phase and some further sensitivity analyses. Finally, recommendations for compiling good-quality life cycle inventory (LCI) data in water scarcity assessment to support the achievement of the LCA study’s goal were made. To support the analysis, the new terms ‘internal development LCA’ and ‘external harmonised LCA’ were proposed. An internal development life cycle assessment refers to a life cycle assessment that aims to evaluate the environmental effects of a specific product or service to support the development of the environmental performance of the product. External harmonised LCA is needed when comparisons, benchmarking, or public propositions are executed. In contrast with internal development LCA, the methods or their application cannot be selected freely according to the goal of the study in external harmonised LCA, but specific rules for LCA, Environmental Declaration Criteria, or Product Category Rules are followed. The LCIs in the case studies were analysed, and observations were made especially concerning the following aspects: identifying relevant processes and elementary waterflows; data collection methods; assumptions due to missing data or default origins; raw data modification methods; allocation methods and the link between inventory and impact assessment. A commonly observed challenge was the lack of knowledge of the origins of the inputs. A general conclusion about the AWARE method is that the water scarcity footprint result reflected both water consumption and the characteristics of the region in the form of a characterisation factor. This dissertation work’s results support the claim that the indicator has a clear and understandable physical meaning. Food product chain hotspots were recognised. If irrigation was applied, it dominated the water scarcity results. Irrigation dominated the water scarcity results of primary production, but even without irrigation, the magnitude of primary production was remarkable. The consumption stage may also be important for the water scarcity footprint. Water scarcity footprints have a strong spatial nature. The effect of geographical location on water scarcity footprint is especially important. Because of the regional character of water scarcity footprint, it seems it is generally impossible to define any normal or typical level of water scarcity footprint result of a certain food product, but products from different origins will have different water scarcity footprints. However, with stronger evidence in the scientific literature, it is likely that the typical water scarcity footprints of certain food items produced in certain regions can be defined in the future. According to the results of this thesis, improved primary data production and traceability to determine the origins of the inputs is needed in many cases to improve the results’ accuracy. The spatial nature of the water scarcity footprint considerably increases the need for regionalised (spatially differentiated) data. The production of geographically representative datasets is time- and resource-consuming work, but it is necessary for improving the accuracy of LCA studies applying AWARE. All data should be compatible with the definition of consumptive water in ISO 14046. Using theoretically modelled data instead of primary data may result in inaccuracy. This is an important question, especially with the volume of irrigation water, because the relative share of water for irrigation may be remarkable if included in the production chain. In harmonised LCA, the calculation rules should guarantee the harmonisation, at least at a reasonable level, but product category rules (PCRs) do not necessarily instruct the use of AWARE at a detailed level. Regarding the water scarcity effect, the PCR should list when primary data must be produced about the input, and when information about the origin of the input is mandatory, even if there is no other basic information about the product. In particular, the evaluation of irrigation water must be instructed. | Kasvava osa maailman väestöstä kärsii kroonisesta vesiniukkuudesta ja 17 % vesistöalueista kärsii liiallisesta vedenkulutuksesta. Maailmanlaajuisesti maatalous on merkittävin vedenkuluttaja, ja suurin osa maatalouden vedenkulutuksesta johtuu kasteluveden käytöstä. Vesi-intensiivisiä tuotteita tuotetaan usein vesiniukoissa maissa ja virtuaalista (kastelu)vettä ostetaan ja myydään maataloustuotteiden myötä. Tuotteiden vesiniukkuusvaikutuksia voidaan mitata elinkaariarvioinnissa (LCA) AWARE-vaikutustenarviointimenetelmällä. AWARE on suhteellisen uusi menetelmä, mutta useat vaikutusvaltaiset organisaatiot (esim. Euroopan komissio) suosittelevat sitä jo, ja siksi menetelmää tultaneen todennäköisesti soveltamaan laajalti tulevina vuosina. Tämän väitöskirjatyön tavoitteena oli tutkia, miten AWARE-menetelmä vertautuu muihin vesiniukkuuden arviointimenetelmiin elintarvikkeiden elinkaariarvioinnissa, tutkia kolmen Suomessa yleisen elintarvikkeen eli maidon, kahvin ja broilerinlihan vesiniukkuusvaikutusta ja niiden ongelmakohtia, sekä tunnistaa lisätutkimustarpeita ketjun ympäristösuorituskyvyn parantamiseksi ja harmonisoidun elinkaariarvioinnin tekemiseksi. Kaikkien kolmen elintarvikkeen vesiniukkuusvaikutukset arvioitiin ja vesiniukkuuden kannalta oleelliset tuotantovaiheet tunnistettiin. Tulokset osoittavat, että jos kastelua käytettiin, se hallitsi vesiniukkuusvaikutustuloksia, mutta ilman kasteluakin alkutuotannon merkitys oli huomattava. Myös kulutusvaihe voi olla tärkeä vesiniukkuusvaikutuksen kannalta. Maantieteellisen sijainnin vaikutus veden niukkuuteen on erityisen tärkeä. Vesiniukkuusvaikutusten arviointi on mahdollista elintarvikkeille, mutta vesiniukkuuden alueellisen luonteen vuoksi on erittäin haastavaa määritellä yleisesti tietyn ruoka-aineen normaalia tai tyypillistä vesiniukkuusvaikutuksen tasoa, jos sitä tuotetaan eri puolilla maailmaa. Monissa tapauksissa tarvitaan enemmän primääritiedon tuotantoa ja syötteiden alkuperän jäljitettävyyttä, jotta tulosten tarkkuus paranee. Vesiniukkuusvaikutuksen alueellinen luonne lisää huomattavasti alueellisesti eriytetyn tiedon tarvetta. Maantieteellisesti edustavien aineistojen tuottaminen on aikaa ja resursseja vievää työtä, mutta se on välttämätöntä, jotta ymmärrys ruuan vaikutuksesta veden niukkuuteen lisääntyy.

Commercially processed food, drinking-water sources and effluent waters discharged into bodies of water from wastewater treatment plants are putative but yet poorly delineated sources of human exposure to chemical mutagens and oestrogen-like chemicals globally. To this end, this study was aimed at determining the current situation for a possible comparison between a European country (Finland) and an African country (Nigeria). A total of 116 commercially processed food items and ready-to-eat snacks (three lots each) were obtained from Finland (60) and Nigeria (36) for initial screening, as well as sachet-pure water (16 different brands) from Nigeria, bottled still and mineral waters (10 brands each), tap water (hot and cold collected over a 3-month period) and influent and effluent water samples from both a drinking-water treatment plant (collected over a 3-month period) and a wastewater treatment plant (collected over a 2-year period) in Finland. All samples were collected in their respective countries and extracted by established methods. The mutagenic potential of the food extracts was first determined by the standard plate incorporation assay (Ames test), using two strains of Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium (TA 100 and TA 98) in the presence and absence of metabolic activation (S9 mix), and subsequently by a methylcellulose overlay, as well as treat-and-wash assays, while the oestrogenicity of the water and food samples, as well as food packaging materials, was determined by a yeast bioluminescent assay, using two recombinant yeast strains (Saccharomyces cerevisiae BMAEREluc/ERα and S. cerevisiae BMA64/luc). The cytotoxicity of the food extracts was measured by the trypan blue and lactate dehydrogenase tests, using the HepG2 cell line, as well as by the boar sperm motility assay, while possible DNA damage was assessed by the comet assay. The mutagenicity of commercially processed food items in Finland was generally low: 60% or 73% were non-mutagenic in S. Typhimurium strains TA 100 and TA 98, respectively. While the majority of the initially positive samples proved negative in the complementary assays, cold cuts of cold-smoked beef, grilled turkey and smoked chicken (a single batch of each) were also mutagenic in all three assays with the TA 100 strain, with and without metabolic activation, indicating that the mutagenic effect was not secondary to histidine release from the food products. The low mutagenicity outcome of the Finnish food items was further confirmed by independent chemical analyses of similar food products for four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In contrast to the outcome in Finland, the majority of food items from Nigeria (75%) were mutagenic in the Ames test, either in the presence or absence of the S9 mix and in either of the strains. Chin-chin, hamburger, suya and bean cake were mutagenic in all three assays with the Salmonella TA 100 strain, either in the presence or absence of the S9 mix. However, none of the food samples caused DNA damage in the comet assay. They were also not cytotoxic in any of the three assays measuring this aspect. In all, 31% of the sachet-packed water samples in Nigeria were oestrogenic, with concentrations ranging from 0.79 to 44.0 ng/l oestradiol equivalent concentrations (EEQs), while the tap and bottled water samples from Finland showed no signs of oestrogenicity in the in vitro test. Similarly, the oestrogenic activity of the influent samples from the wastewater treatment plant in Helsinki were generally low (from below the limit of detection to 0.7 ng/l EEQ), except in March and August 2011, when relatively high levels (14.0 and 7.8 ng/l EEQ, respectively) were obtained. No oestrogenic activity was recorded in any of the treated effluent samples from the wastewater treatment plant, nor was any in the influent and effluent samples from the drinking-water plant. The outcome of this study implies that Nigerian food items and drinking-water sources are more likely to contain mutagenic and oestrogenic chemicals than their Finnish counterparts, and efforts should be made to reduce the level of human exposure to these chemicals in the diet. | No Finnish translation of my abstract

This case study sheds new light on rural water use and related social, aconomic and environmental dimensions and proposes government intervention in order to ensure water rights and protect public value of fairness. The aim is to highlight farmers’ perspectives on irrigation water use and related obstacles, and specifically distinguish if views are connected to farmers’ underlying socioeconomic or agro-ecologic factors. For further considerations adaptive capacity of community for irrigation water fees is explored. The research material consists of semi-structured interviews for farmers (n=63), government organizations (n=3) and agricultural enterprises (n=2). Economic groups were formed via analysis of asset-based economic status. Grouping based on agricultural water use was conducted through categorization. Costs and lack of knowledge were identified as the main barriers for adopting advanced irrigation technology. The study showed prevailing allocation system is in need of reformation. When designing rural policy, farmers’ perceptions should be respected. Water allocation is considered unfair community-wide and social conflicts are largely faced. Those who do not suffer from conflicts are most commonly rich. Technology transfer offer potential benefits, but community needs to be mobilized. Grouping based on irrigation water usage may be used for targeting policies. Economic grouping may be used for distinguishing farmers’ behavior when designing change in economic conditions or conflict resolution strategy. The complementary role of this study is to bring out special focus on development for institutional capacity-building; strengthening the forcing nature of laws and user rights. This may reduce the attractiveness for corruption in the process. Under these conditions, the greatest benefits may be obtained by giving top priority instead of irrigation improvement, but conflict mediation and establishment of water markets.

The aim of this licentiate thesis is to assess by literature the potential exposure of humans to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) through food and drinking water in Finland and Minnesota, USA and to represent the prevalence (the total number of cases of a disease at a specific time) of Johne's disease and the prevalence and incidence (the number of new cases of a disease during a certain period of time) Crohn's disease in the United States, Minnesota and Finland. Johne's disease (JD), also known as paratuberculosis, is a globally important chronic intestinal disease of cattle and other ruminants such as goats and sheep caused by MAP. Crohn's disease (CD) is a chronic intestinal disease of humans. The etiology of CD is unknown but in addition to genetic susceptibility, environmental factors have been found to have an impact on the onset of the disease. It has been suggested that MAP could be one of the etiologic agents of CD. In the United States, JD is more common in dairy cattle than in beef cattle. The apparent cow-level prevalence is 6% and apparent herd-level prevalence is 68 % in dairy cattle. In Minnesota the apparent prevalence of JD in dairy cattle at the cow-level is 3% and at the herd-level 46%. In beef cattle the prevalence at the cow-level is only 0.3 % in Minnesota. The prevalence of CD in the United States is 241/100,000 and the annual incidence 20/100,000. The prevalence of CD in Minnesota is 222/100,000 and the annual incidence 13/100,000. In Finland, JD has been diagnosed in five beef cattle herds since 1992. The disease has not been diagnosed in dairy cattle or sheep or goats in Finland. The prevalence of CD in Finland is 124/100,000 and the annual incidence 9/100,000. The prevalence of MAP in food and drinking water in Finland has not been studied. Despite this, it is unlikely that people are exposed to MAP through drinking water or by eating foods of Finnish origin because the prevalence of JD in Finland is very low. However, exposure to the bacterium is possible by eating imported beef and dairy products such as cheese and yogurt. The share of imported foods within these food groups is relatively large in Finland. Dairy products and beef are imported for example from Germany and Denmark where the prevalence of JD at the herd-level is about 50–80 %. In the United States the occurrence of MAP in foods and drinking water has been studied quite much. It appears that the bacterium is found in foods and drinking water of U.S. origin. Because JD is so common in the United States and Minnesota, it is likely that people are exposed to the bacterium in Minnesota even though not all the food eaten is produced in the state. It is likely that people in areas of high prevalence of JD are exposed more to MAP than people in areas of low prevalence of JD. Comparing subsets of CD patients with high exposure to MAP to healthy controls with and without exposure to MAP could reveal the possible role of MAP in the complex etiology of CD. Based on this literature review it can be assumed that in Finland CD is caused by some other environmental agent than MAP. This licentiate thesis sets up further research needs to estimate the true human exposure to MAP. | Tämän lisensiaatin tutkielman tarkoituksena on arvioida kirjallisuuden avulla ihmisten altistumista Suomessa ja Minnesotan osavaltiossa, Yhdysvalloissa Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) -bakteerille elintarvikkeiden ja juomaveden välityksellä sekä raportoida paratuberkuloosin prevalenssi eli vallitsevuus (sairaiden lukumäärä tietyllä hetkellä) ja Crohnin taudin prevalenssi ja insidenssi eli ilmaantuvuus (uusien sairastapauksien määrä tiettynä ajanjaksona) Yhdysvalloissa, Minnesotassa ja Suomessa. Paratuberkuloosi (englanninkielisessä kirjallisuudessa usein Johnen tauti) on maailmanlaajuisesti merkittävä nautojen ja muiden märehtijöiden kuten vuohien ja lampaiden krooninen suolistosairaus, jonka aiheuttaa MAP-bakteeri. Crohnin tauti puolestaan on ihmisten krooninen suolistosairaus. Crohnin taudin etiologia eli sairauden syy on epäselvä, mutta geneettisen alttiuden lisäksi myös ympäristötekijöillä on todettu olevan vaikutusta taudin puhkeamiseen. On ehdotettu, että MAP saattaisi olla yksi Crohnin taudin aiheuttajista. Yhdysvalloissa paratuberkuloosi on yleisempi lypsykarjoissa kuin lihakarjoissa. Lypsylehmillä prevalenssi on yksilötasolla 6 % ja tilatasolla 68 %. Minnesotassa lypsylehmillä paratuberkuloosin prevalenssi on yksilötasolla 3 % ja tilatasolla 46 %, kun taas osavaltion lihanaudoilla prevalenssi on ainoastaan 0,3 %. Crohnin taudin prevalenssi on Yhdysvalloissa 241/100.000 ja vuosittainen insidenssi 20/100.000. Minnesotassa Crohnin taudin prevalenssi on 222/100.000 ja vuosittainen insidenssi 13/100.000. Suomessa paratuberkuloosia on todettu viidellä eri lihakarjatilalla vuoden 1992 jälkeen. Tautia ei ole löydetty lypsykarjoista eikä myöskään vuohilla tai lampailla. Crohnin taudin prevalenssi on Suomessa 124/100.000 ja vuosittainen insidenssi 9/100.000. Suomessa MAP-bakteerin esiintyvyyttä elintarvikkeissa ja juomavedessä ei ole tutkittu. Siitä huolimatta on epätodennäköistä, että ihmiset altistuisivat bakteerille juomaveden kautta tai syödessään kotimaisia elintarvikkeita, koska paratuberkuloosin prevalenssi Suomessa on erittäin alhainen. Bakteerille altistuminen on kuitenkin mahdollista esimerkiksi ulkomaalaisten maitotuotteiden, kuten juuston ja jogurtin sekä naudanlihan välityksellä, joiden maahantuonti ja osuus kulutetuista elintarvikkeista Suomessa on kohtalaisen suurta. Maitotuotteita ja naudanlihaa tuodaan Suomeen paljon muun muassa Saksasta ja Tanskasta, missä paratuberkuloosin tilatason prevalenssi on noin 50–80 %. Yhdysvalloissa MAP-bakteerin esiintyvyyttä elintarvikkeissa ja juomavedessä on tutkittu kohtalaisesti. Vaikuttaa siltä, että bakteeria esiintyy Yhdysvalloissa juomavedessä sekä elintarvikkeissa. Koska paratuberkuloosi on niin yleinen Yhdysvalloissa ja Minnesotassa, on todennäköistä, että ihmiset Minnesotassa altistuvat bakteerille, vaikkei kaikki minnesotalaisten syömä ruoka olisikaan tuotettu tämän osavaltion alueella. On todennäköistä, että korkeilla paratuberkuloosin prevalenssialueilla asuvat ihmiset altistuvat MAP-bakteerille enemmän ruoan ja juomaveden välityksellä kuin ihmiset alhaisilla prevalenssialueilla. Vertailemalla Crohnin taudin potilaiden osajoukkoja terveisiin kontrolleihin, jotka sekä altistuvat, että eivät altistu MAP-bakteerille on mahdollista selvittää MAP-bakteerin mahdollista roolia Crohnin taudin monitahoisessa etiologiassa. Tämän kirjallisuuskatsauksen perusteella voidaan olettaa, että Suomessa Crohnin taudin aiheuttaa jokin muu ympäristötekijä kuin MAP. Tämä lisensiaatin tutkielma antaa pohjatietoa todellisen MAP-bakteerille altistumisen arvioinnille.