Security measures of three resources; water, energy and food are analyzed for thirty two countries in the Asia Pacific region which are faced to Pacific Ocean, in terms of amounts of the resource, self-production, and diversity of sources of each resource. Diversity for all the three resources is also analyzed using surface water and groundwater for water sources; hydro power, geothermal power, solar, and biomass for energy; and cereals, vegetable, fruit, meat, and fish for food. We see high diversity of sources of water in the US and the Philippines, and a low diversity of sources of food in the US, Canada, and Indonesia. These security measures including water security show new hydrological insight for Asia-Pacific region.

Human exposure to N -nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from foods and beverages was modeled and upper-bound cancer risks were predicted for the United States and Canada. Approximately 0.5 (0–10.8) cancer incidents per million population from lifetime exposure to NDMA in drinking water were estimated. Lifetime exposure to NDMA from the major exogenous sources may result in 49.6 (range: 17.7–171.7) cancer incidents per million population, while meat products contribute the most (15.9/million) followed by milk products (10.9/million). Drinking water may contribute approximately 1% to the exogenous cancer risk and holds the 10th position among 10 exogenous sources. The sum of the cancer risks from the major exogenous sources (e.g. , 49.6/million) is higher than the permissible limits (1–10/million) of several regulatory agencies. Thus, NDMA in exogenous sources can pose a significant source for cancer risk. Cancer risk from the exogenous sources was estimated to be much lower than that of the NDMA in the endogenous source (<1%).

N-nitrosamines are potent carcinogens, particularly N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), which are commonly found in a variety of foods and drinking water. We calculated the food and drinking water intakes of NDMA, NDEA, and total volatile nitrosamines (TVNA) by Chinese residents in different provinces by multiplying the reported total diet study results by the nitrosamine contents in food and drinking water. The weighted content of nitrosamines in each category of foods and the concentration of nitrosamines in drinking water was obtained through literature review. The exogenous NDMA, NDEA and TVNA intakes of adult residents in 20 provinces ranged from 171 to 425 ng/d, 41 to 140 ng/d and 373 to 1028 ng/d, respectively. The main contributors to NDMA and TVNA intakes were vegetables, cereals, aquatic products, and meats while the main sources of NDEA intake were vegetables and cereals. The average total NDMA intake per capita in China (251 ng/d) was similar to that in Germany in 1991 (231 ng/d) but higher than that in the United States (136 ng/d), Canada (87.6 ng/d) and France (188 ng/d). Large differences in nitrosamine intakes were observed between the coastal provinces and inland provinces. Drinking water was estimated to contribute 13.1%, 1.3% and 10.8% of the exogenous intakes of NDMA, NDEA and TVNA, respectively. Based on our results, we recommend setting the NDMA drinking water criterion of 40 ng/L. Overall, this study presents basic information regarding nitrosamines intake via food and drinking water in China that will facilitate risk assessment, generation of health advisories and policy making.

Food- and water-borne pathogens exhibit spatial heterogeneity, but attribution to specific environmental processes is lacking while anthropogenic climate change alters these processes. The goal of this study was to investigate ecology, land-use and health associations of these pathogens and to make future disease projections.The rates of five acute gastrointestinal illnesses (AGIs) (campylobacteriosis, Verotoxin- producing Escherichia coli, salmonellosis, giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis) from 2000 to 2013 in British Columbia, Canada, were calculated across three environmental variables: ecological zone, land use, and aquifer type. A correlation analysis investigated relationships between 19 climatic factors and AGI. Mean annual temperature at the ecological zone scale was used in a univariate regression model to calculate annual relative AGI risk per 1 °C increase. Future cases attributable to climate change were estimated into the 2080s.Each of the bacterial AGI rates was correlated with several annual temperature-related factors while the protozoan AGIs were not. In the regression model, combined relative risk for the three bacterial AGIs was 1.1 [95% CI: 1.02–1.21] for every 1 °C in mean annual temperature. Campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and giardiasis rates were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the urban land use class than in the rural one. In rural areas, bacteria and protozoan AGIs had significantly higher rates in the unconsolidated aquifers. Verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli rates were significantly higher in watersheds with more agricultural land, while rates of campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and giardiasis were significantly lower in agricultural watersheds. Ecological zones with higher bacterial AGI rates were generally projected to expand in range by the 2080s.These findings suggest that risk of AGI can vary across ecosystem, land use and aquifer type, and that warming temperatures may be associated with an increased risk of food-borne AGI. In addition, spatial patterns of these diseases are projected to shift under climate change.

Objective: Enteric illness represents a significant burden of illness in Canada and internationally. Building on previous research, an expert elicitation was undertaken to explore the routes of transmission for 28 pathogens involved in enteric illness in Canada. This article considers the subcategories of foodborne, waterborne, and animal contact transmission.Methods: As part of an expert elicitation, 31 experts were asked to provide estimates of source attribution for subcategories of foodborne (n = 15), waterborne (n = 10), and animal contact (n = 3) transmission. The results from an online survey were combined using triangular probability distributions, and median and 90% credible intervals were produced. The total proportion and estimated number of cases of enteric illness attributable to each type of food commodity, water source, and animal exposure route were calculated using results from the larger elicitation survey and from a recent Canadian foodborne burden of illness study (Thomas et al., 2013).Results: Thirty experts provided foodborne subcategory estimates for 15/28 pathogens, waterborne subcategory estimates for 14/28 pathogens and animal contact subcategory estimates for 5/28. The elicitation identified raw produce, recreational water, and farm animal contact as important risk factors for enteric illness. These results also highlighted the complexity of transmission, with greater uncertainty for certain pathogens and routes of transmission.Conclusions: This study is the first of its kind to explore subcategories of foodborne, waterborne, and animal contact transmission across such a range of enteric pathogens. Despite inherent uncertainty, these estimates present an important quantitative synthesis of the roles of foodborne commodities, water sources, and pathways of animal contact in the transmission of enteric illness in Canada.

In the current study, we have developed a green water switchable liquid–liquid microextraction method for separation, preconcentration, and estimation of selenium concentration in the real samples. First time introducing the water switchable liquid–liquid microextraction method to determine the trace level selenium in different food and soft drink samples. Water switchable medium was formed by the reaction of diethylenetriamine base when exposed to uniformed pressure of carbon dioxide. After being exposed to carbon dioxide, water switchable medium reversibly exchanges in two separated aqueous and organic phases. Advantages of carbon dioxide uses are cheap, environmental friendly, non-accumulation, removable, and require the opaque materials for operating container. Water switchable phenomena occurred easily from low polarity to high polarity organic solvent. Experimental variables of the water switchable liquid–liquid microextraction (LLME) method were optimized into its optimum values such as pressure, pH, centrifugation speed, extraction time, and concentration of complexing agent. The certified reference material of Canada Lake Water (TMDA-53.3) and CS-M-3 Mushroom (Boletus edulis) was used for validation of the present water switchable LLME method. Enhancement factor and limit of detection were obtained 85.5 and 0.018 μg kg⁻¹, respectively. Developed green water switchable LLME method was successfully applied for assessment of total selenium in tomato, pumpkin seed, mushroom, garlic, rice, pistachio, chickpea, hazelnut, walnut, apple juice, and ice tea samples.