Papers on mycobacteria in food, feed and water, published between 1945 and 2010 and indexed in the database Web of Science® (Thomson Reuters) were ranked according to authors, institutions, countries and source titles. The total number of papers on mycobacteria and food and mycobacteria and water were 1486 and 1419, respectively. More than 40% of papers have been published in the last five years. In addition to publications in peer reviewed journals the archives of ProMED-mail and the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed of the European Union were also searched. It is evident that much attention is being paid to mycobacteria in food, feed and water as they likely pose a public health risk.

Papers on mycobacteria in food, feed and water, published between 1945 and 2010 and indexed in the database Web of Science (Thomson Reuters), were ranked according to authors, institutions, countries and source titles. The total number of papers on mycobacteria and food, and mycobacteria and water were 1,486 and 1,419, respectively. More than 40% of papers have been published in the last five years. In addition to publications in peer reviewed journals the archives of ProMED-mail and the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed of the European Union were also searched. It is evident that much attention is being paid to mycobacteria in food, feed and water as they likely pose a public health risk.

Iran’s focus on food self-sufficiency has led to an emphasis on increasing water volumes available for irrigation with little attention to water use efficiency, and no attention at all to the role of consumption and trade. To better understand the development of water consumption in relation to food production, consumption, and trade, we carried out the first comprehensive water footprint assessment (WFA) for Iran, for the period 1980–2010, and estimated the water saving per province associated with interprovincial and international crop trade. Based on the AquaCrop model, we estimated the green and blue water footprint (WF) related to both the production and consumption of 26 crops, per year and on a daily basis, for 30 provinces of Iran. We find that, in the period 1980–2010, crop production increased by 175%, the total WF of crop production by 122%, and the blue WF by 20%. The national population grew by 92%, and the crop consumption per capita by 20%, resulting in a 130% increase in total food consumption and a 110% increase in the total WF of national crop consumption. In 2010, 26% of the total water consumption in the semi-arid region served the production of crops for export to other regions within Iran (mainly cereals) or abroad (mainly fruits and nuts). Iran’s interprovincial virtual water trade grew by a factor of 1.6, which was mainly due to increased interprovincial trade in cereals, nuts, and fruits. Current Iranian food and water policy could be enriched by reducing the WFs of crop production to certain benchmark levels per crop and climatic region and aligning cropping patterns to spatial differences in water availability and productivities, and by paying due attention to the increasing food consumption per capita in Iran.

This study has deduced a correlation between points of inflection of water activity and loss factor with respect to moisture content. A point of inflection in loss factor with respect to moisture content was found to coincide with the sorption isotherm point of inflection that defines the transition from multilayer to solution in every instance analysed, with an average difference of just 0.01 kg kg−1. Food can support microbial growth and chemical reactions in water activity levels above this critical transition. This correlation was discovered using published dielectric and sorption data for specific foods at similar temperatures. It was found that low sugar foods containing high levels of hydrocolloids generally exhibited different behaviour from fruits. This shows that microwave heating behaviour will be different in fruits compared to low sugar foods with high hydrocolloid content when drying to achieve a certain water activity and therefore shelf life.

To foster their competitive advantage, food firms pay an increasing attention to strategies that tend to distinguish their products from the ones supplied by their competitors, dedicating to this task most of their resources, knowledge and creativity. In such a framework, also the resource water, often seen as an homogenous product, is more and more utilized in the advertisement as an element that increases the quality of the final good. This paper aims at building a model that can explain the observed behaviour in the different food industries and that can give some insights about the future perspectives of the utilization of the water as a differentiation factor. To reach this goal, first we present a survey of the commercials of specific food industries (beverages, pasta, bread, fresh produce), in which the contribute of water to the product is shown. On the basis of empirical evidence, we argue that the propensity to use water as an element of differentiation is greater when greater are the degrees of technological knowledge, the consumers' perceptions, and the importance of the differentiation strategy in that specific industry. Since we expect that these three factors will increase over time, we also conclude that it is rational to experiment a generalized increase of the utilization of water in the commercials of food products. We also recommend to extend the analysis testing the results using a quantitative approach | Per effetto dell'aumento della competizione sui mercati nazionali e internazionali, l'industria alimentare è spinta a dedicare una crescente attenzione alle strategie di differenziazione. A tal fine, essa impiega gran parte delle risorse, delle conoscenze e della creatività a disposizione. In un tale contesto, anche l'acqua, una risorsa spesso interpretata come bene altamente omogeneo, risulta sempre più utilizzata nelle campagne promozionali dei prodotti alimentari per spiegare la maggiore qualità degli stessi. Il presente contributo ha l'intento di costruire un modello esplicativo di questi comportamenti tale da offrire, al contempo, indicazioni prospettiche circa il ruolo dell'acqua come elemento di differenziazione. Analizzando le pubblicità di alcuni specifici prodotti (bevande, pasta, pane, ortofrutta fresca), si argomenta che la propensione all'utilizzo dell'acqua come fattore di differenziazione in un determinato comparto alimentare è direttamente proporzionale al livello delle conoscenze tecnologiche, alla percezione del consumatore e alla rilevanza della strategia di differenziazione in quello stesso comparto. Considerando che, nel tempo, ciascuna delle tre determinanti è destinata a sperimentare un trend positivo, è lecito attendersi anche un crescente riferimento al contributo della risorsa acqua all'interno dei messaggi pubblicitari. L'impostazione prevalentemente teorica del presente contributo induce a considerare particolarmente interessante l'ipotesi di testare i risultati mediante un approccio prettamente quantitativo

The food processing industry is one of the largest consumers of energy and water in the manufacturing sector. It is vital that conservation measures are taken to reduce the use of electricity, fuel, and water for producers to have long-term, sustainable growth. The Pacific Northwest (PNW) region includes some the largest food processers in the United States, particularly with products such as fruit and vegetable preserves, apples products, potato products, and milk. Energy and water consumption in PNW food processing facilities are quantified as well as techniques to increase efficiency and reduce waste. Mechanical drive systems and refrigeration consumes the most electricity in the industry and the implementation of energy management plans has the largest potential to save electricity in PNW facilities. Heating and cooling process needs are the largest consumers of energy in the food processing industry. Implementing cogeneration/trigeneration technology, replacing of older equipment, capturing waste heat, and reusing wastewater can have significant impacts on both energy and water consumption. Novel, emerging technologies such as membrane separation, high-pressure processing, microwave assist, ultrasound, pulsed high electric fields, ozone, and hydrogen/electricity generation have significant potential to benefit the food processing industry by increasing efficiency and allowing companies to stay competitive in an industry where sustainable practices are becoming increasingly important to the public.

Exploring the environmental impact of dietary consumption has become increasingly important to understand the carbon-water-food nexus, vital to achieving UN sustainable development goals. However, the research on diet-based nexus assessment is still lacking. Here, we developed an Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output (EE-MRIO) model with compiling a global MRIO table based on the latest Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) 10 database, where we specifically constructed a water withdrawal account and matched it to each economy at the sectoral level. The regional heterogeneity and synergy of carbon-water nexus affected by dietary patterns in nine countries was explored. The results show that: (1) Dietary consumption is the main use of water withdrawal for each country; Japan, the US, South Korea, and India have a high per capita dietary water footprint. Mainly due to consumption of processed rice, Japan has the highest per capita value of 488 M³/year, accounting for 63.4% of the total water footprint. (2) The total dietary carbon footprints in China, India, and the US are high, which is mainly caused by the high consumption of animal products (including dairy) either due to the large population (China, India) or animal-based diet (the US). Americans have the highest per capita dietary carbon footprint, reaching 755.4 kg/year, 2.76 times that of the global average. (3) Generally, imported/foreign footprints account for a greater share in dietary water and carbon footprints of developed countries with an animal-based diet. (4) In the nexus analysis, the US, Japan, and South Korea are key-nexus countries, vegetables, fruit and nuts, tobacco and beverages, and other food products are selected as key-nexus sectors with relatively high dietary water and carbon footprint. Furthermore, dietary consumption choices lead to different environmental impacts. It is particularly important to find a sustainable dietary route adapted to each country considering that heterogeneity and synergism exist in key-nexus sectors to achieve the relevant Sustainable Development Goals.

Rapid urban growth in sub-Saharan Africa challenges food supply of cities. As food and other organic matter are transported from production areas to consumption points, water, which has been used for their production, is transported virtually. This study aimed at determining the magnitude and sources of virtual water flows in food trade of two West African cities, in order to better assess food provisioning risks and water resource use and planning. To this end, flows of unprocessed food from local, regional, national and international sources were systematically recorded at all roads leading to Tamale, Ghana and Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The survey was conducted within two years covering the peak (November - December) and lean season (March - April), respectively, for six days in a row. Virtual water flows were computed by multiplying the flow quantities (t yr⁻¹) by their respective virtual water contents (m³ t⁻¹). Results showed that virtual water of all food commodities imported to Tamale and Ouagadougou were 514 and 2105 million m³ yr⁻¹ respectively, out of which 68% and 40% were re-exported to other regions of the country. The data also showed major seasonal variation in virtual water flows across the year. Reflecting their dominating role in local diets, cereals contributed most to the total virtual water inflows in both cities. Southern Ghana is the major net virtual water importer from Tamale through cereals, legumes, vegetables, and livestock. The Northern Region of Ghana, on the other hand, is a net exporter of virtual water in all food groups apart from fruits. In Ouagadougou, large flows of virtual water were imported in cereals, specifically rice from Asian countries, via Ivory Coast.

The improvement of the sustainability of global food systems is a top priority. Many efforts have targeted the production side, yet managing food consumption demand, i.e., people’s eating habits, might deliver important co-benefits from a land, water, and energy perspective. This paper focuses on assessing the water-related implications of food consumption and waste among Spanish consumers to discern possible policy recommendations. Specifically, we estimated the water footprint (WF) of the diet and associated food waste of Spanish households from October 2014 to September 2015, broken down by WF component (green, blue and grey) and its geographical origin. Our results showed that, for the analyzed period, the WF of food consumption in Spain is 52,933 hm3, equivalent to 3302 liters per person and day. The consumptive fraction (green + blue water) of this diet-related WF accounts for 89%, while the remaining 11% (127 m3 per person/year) is attributed to water quality impacts (grey water). The products that account for the largest share in the total WF are meat, fish and animal fats (26%) and dairy products (21%). Likewise, roughly 41% of the total WF linked to household diets is foreign, i.e., imported virtual water, and the main countries of origin are Tunisia, Portugal, and France. The WF of food waste accounts for 2095 hm3, equivalent to 131 liters per person and day. From a policy perspective, several studies have highlighted that high water savings can be achieved by reducing food waste; in Spain, however, eliminating food waste at household level would reduce the Spanish food-related WF by only 4% (292 hm3 of blue water and 1555 hm3 of green water). In the light of these results, a shift back to a Mediterranean diet, in which fruits and vegetables account for a larger share of the food intake, would deliver greater water savings.

El propósito de esta investigación fue determinar el perfil microbiológico de alimentos de baja actividad de agua (Aw) y a su vez conocer el comportamiento de Salmonella en estos productos. Frutos secos (nueces y cacahuetes), frutas deshidratadas (pasas y jitomates secados al sol) y muestras de chocolate. Se recolectaron 350 muestras de productos vendidos a granel en mercados de la ciudad de Querétaro. Se cuantificó el contenido de bacterias mesófilas aerobias (BMA), coliformes totales (CT), Escherichia coli, hongos y levaduras, así como la detección por métodos convencionales, de Salmonella enterica y Staphylococcus aureus. Adicionalmente, se realizó la estandarización de una técnica de detección molecular para norovirus en muestras de cacahuates, nueces, pasas y jitomate secado al sol. Los valores de las medianas de los microorganismos indicadores en los cinco productos oscilaron entre 3.1 a 5.2 Log UFC/g para BMA, 0.6-1.2 Log NMP/g para CT, 0.5-0.9 Log NMP/g para E. coli, 1.7-2.4 Log UFC/g para los hongos, 2.0-2.8 Log UFC/g para levaduras levaduras. En ninguna muestra se detectó S. aureus. Por el contrario la presencia de Salmonella de detectó en cacahuates (31 %), nueces (40 %), pasas (30 %), tomate secado al sol (56 %) y chocolate (26 %). El método que resultó efectivo para la detección de Norovirus Murino (MNV-1) consistió en extracción de RNA seguida por RT-PCR; se lograron detectar concentraciones de 2.6, ~0.6, <1 y <1 Log PFU/g en cacahuates, nueces, tomates secados al sol y pasas. | The purpose of this investigation was to determine the microbiological profile of low water activity food items and to know the surveillance of Salmonella in these products. Nuts (pecans and peanuts), dehydrated fruits (raisins and sun-dried tomatoes) and chocolate samples (a total of 350) sold in bulk were collected in city markets. Aerobic Plate Count (APC), Coliforms (TC), E. coli, molds and yeasts quantifications and Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus detection were carried out by conventional methods. In addition the standardization of a molecular detection technique for norovirus from peanuts, pecans, raisins and sun dried tomato samples was carried out. For the determination of indicator microorganisms the medians observed for the five products are between the values 3.1-5.2 Log CFU/g for APC, 0.6-1.2 Log MPN/g for TC, 0.5-0.9 Log MPN/g for E. coli, 1.7-2.4 Log CFU/g for molds, 2.0-2.8 Log CFU/g for yeasts; there was no detection of positive thermonuclease S. aureus in any sample. Salmonella spp was detected in all the analyzed products: peanuts 31 %, pecans 40 %, raisins 30 %, sun-dried tomato 56 %, and chocolate 26 %. RNA extraction followed by RT-PCR was able to detect the minimum MNV-1 concentrations: peanuts and pecans up to 2.6 Log PFU/g and up to ~0.6 Log PFU/g, respectively. Sun-dried tomatoes showed detection to <1 Log PFU/g and raisins to <1 Log PFU/g.