A total of 958 samples of raw fish, fish products and "frutti di mare" were tested for staphylococci. Among 153 strains isolated and subjected to identification the most frequently present were: S. aureus, S. warneri, S. hominis and S. sciuri. These species stated for 46.4; 20.9; 7.2 and 5.2 percent of the total number of identified staphylococci species, respectively. Atypical coagulase-negative S. aureus represented 11.3 percent of identified strains of this species. With coagulase-negative staphylococci taken into account, presence of staphylococci was confirmed in 69.8 percent of the 275 samples tested, while contamination with coagulase-positive staphylococci was confirmed in 24.7 percent of them

The analysis of water by near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was the first successful application of this rapid technology which has been developed over the past 30 years into a routine method for many agricultural commodities and food constituents. Nowadays, NIRS technology offers many advantages because its rapidity allows more frequent measurements at all stages from purchase of raw materials and ingredients to the control of the finished products. NIRS-methods are well suited to in-line use. Nevertheless the two dominant and broad peaks, near to 1440 and 1930 nm in nearly every NIR spectrum due to water, are responsible for some typical complications in this analysis. Effects of hydrogen bonding and sample temperature are found to affect the reliability of NIRS results.

There has been a recent surge of interest in the use of food-grade nanoparticles (NPs) for stabilizing food foams and emulsions. Cereal proteins are a promising raw material class to produce such NPs. Studies thus far have focused mostly on wheat gliadin and maize zein-based NPs. The former are effective interfacial stabilizing agents, while the latter due to their high hydrophobicity generally result in poor interfacial stability. Several strategies to modify the surface properties of wheat gliadin and maize zein NPs have been followed. In many instances, this resulted in improved foam or emulsion stability. Nonetheless, future efforts should be undertaken to gain fundamental insights in the interfacial behavior of NPs, to further explore NP surface modification strategies, and to validate the use of NPs in actual food systems.

The food, energy, and water (FEW) nexus has gained increased attention, resulting in numerous studies on management approaches. Themes of resource use, and their subsequent scarcity and economic rents, which are within the application domain of the World Trade Model, are ripe for study, with the continuing development of forward- and backward-facing economic data. Scenarios of future food and energy demand, relating to supply chains, as well as direct and indirect resource uses, are modelled in this paper. While it is possible to generate a substantial number of economic and environmental scenarios, our focus is on the development of an overarching approach involving a range of scenarios. We intend to establish a benchmark of possibilities in the context of the debates surrounding the Paris Climate Agreement (COP21) and the Green New Deal. Our approach draws heavily from the existing literature on international agreements and targets, notably that of COP21, whose application we associate with the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP). Relevant factor uses and scarcity rent increases are found and localized, e.g., on the optimal qualities of water, minerals, and land. A clear policy implication is that, in all scenarios, processes of energy transition, raw material use reduction, and recycling must be strengthened.

The recovery of resources from waste streams including food production plants can improve the overall sustainability of such processes from both economic and environmental points of view. This is because resource recovery solutions will be instrumental in overcoming the grand societal challenges in relation to the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus in one of many aspects. Identification, development and implementation of resource recovery solutions in an industrial setting is a challenge that requires careful assessment of environmental impacts, technology readiness level (TRL), economics as well as other implementation aspects. This manuscript will first introduce these multi-disciplinary concepts followed by four case studies that are each at a different level of technological maturity and have a unique economic value proposition. The technologies demonstrated in these case studies directly convert either food waste, waste energy or wastewater into valuable raw materials. Using the case study experience as a basis, a roadmap to commercialisation is discussed where the focus is on understanding industrial needs, the role of industrial symbiosis and the current challenges that must be overcome. To this end, the objective of this manuscript is to go beyond the purely single-faceted technical discussion and provide an insight into the multi-faceted aspects of commercialising resource recovery technology development, which would be a key pillar in realising the future circular economy in line with UN’s sustainable development goals.

PURPOSE: The food processing industry is a major consumer of energy and water, the consumption of which has environmental impacts. This work develops a method to determine process-specific water use and utilizes an existing energy use toolbox to calculate the energy and water required for each step of food processing. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is conducted to determine how much processing contributes to a particular product’s cradle to gate impacts for two impact categories. METHODS: A method to determine water use at each unit process was developed, and in conjunction with an already developed energy use unit process toolbox, the methods were tested using two case studies. Processing data such as flow rates, operation temperatures, and food losses were used from two Swiss food production facilities. Calculation results were compared to measured facility data such as yearly energy and water use. Results were then used to develop LCAs for a total of seven food products, including five types of juice and two types of potato products. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The toolboxes were able to calculate the water use of both facilities within 25%, the thermal energy use within 9%, and electricity use within 24%. Impacts from processing were particularly important for the potato products, particularly potato flakes, due to impacts stemming from thermal energy use. For juices, impacts due to raw material growth dominate the LCA, and impacts due to processing are much less significant. A unit process analysis may not be necessary when there is little variation in the unit processes between the different products. In this case, a simple allocation of measured facility energy and water data may be sufficient for calculating the impacts associated with processing. However, products with largely varying unit processes may have very different impacts. Impacts are sensitive to the type of energy required (thermal or electrical) and the sources of electricity and water. CONCLUSIONS: These water and energy toolboxes can improve transparency in processing and identify the most water- and energy-intensive steps; however, in facilities with similar products, such an extensive analysis may not be necessary. Results from these calculations are useful in developing food product LCAs.

Residual resources in agriculture provide prime raw material for bioenergy production whose optimization has potential to promote agricultural economy while mitigating environmental side-effects. Food, energy, water, and land resources are intertwined in agricultural systems. Effective management of bioenergy production, considering the nexus of these resources, is needed for the sustainable development of agriculture, which is challenging because of the uncertainties involved therein. This study proposes an optimization-assessment approach (input/output relationship) for sustainable bioenergy production in agricultural systems. The approach is capable of (1) providing decision makers with the ability to determine optimal policy options among water, land, energy, and livestock, considering the tradeoff between economic and environmental impacts for bioenergy production; (2) helping decision makers identify the level of sustainability of agricultural systems and where the effort should be made for various regions; and (3) dealing with the uncertainties to provide decision alternatives. The proposed approach is applied to a case study in the particular context of northeast China, which is predominantly an agricultural region with large bioenergy potential. The changing range of bioenergy production potential, system costs, and environmental impacts were obtained, based on different schemes for the allocation of agricultural resources among different regions. Economic-environmental impact and sensitivity analyses were conducted, and agricultural system sustainability was assessed in a changing environment. Considering the complexity due to uncertainty, the proposed approach can help manage bioenergy production in agricultural systems in a sustainable way, and will be applicable for similar agriculture-centered regions.

Water, energy, and food are the most basic and essential sectors for human welfare. However, an inextricable nexus and competition exists among these sectors. Production of molasses-based bioethanol is an interesting case resulting in the production of different food and energy materials while consuming water, energy, land, and other raw materials, throughout its life cycle. This paper briefly describes the nexus among water, energy, and food for bioethanol in Pakistan and its environmental implications. A life cycle approach has been used for evaluating four footprint categories including the carbon, ecological, water scarcity, and energy footprints along with an energy analysis of bioethanol. In comparison to conventional gasoline, bioethanol would have benefits in terms of lesser greenhouse gas emissions, better use of productive land, and superior energy performance, but, this will be at the expense of higher impacts in terms of water scarcity. Therefore, considering only a single aspect could result in inadvertent trade-offs that may go unnoticed. The quantified values would help accomplish integrated resource management along with their utilization within limits so as to be available for other uses. This study could help in developing strategies for optimal management of resources to maximize the synergies and minimize the possible trade-offs.

Saeng-sikis a powdered ready-to-eat food with very low moisture that contains dried raw materials such as grains, fruits,mushrooms, and seaweeds. This product is consumed as a convenient and nutritious meal replacement. The objective of this study was to develop a mathematical model for predicting the survival of Clostridium perfringens vegetative cells and spores in saeng-sikas a function of temperature and to validate the model using saeng-siksamples with different microbial communities analyzed by matrix-assisted laser desorptionionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Kinetic data for C. perfringens survival in saeng-sikfit well to the Weibull model with high goodness off it (R(2) = 0.92 to 0.98). The obtained δ values (required time for first decimal reduction) for each temperature were 19.62 to 864.86 h, and concave curves (p < 1) were observed under all experimental conditions (5 to 40 degree C). Kinetic parameters were further described in a secondary model as a function of temperature using a Davey model (R(2) =0.99). The developed model was validated by the bias factor, accuracy factor, and root mean square error, and the values were within acceptable ranges for predictive models, even for saeng-sik samples with different microbial communities. When saeng-sikwas rehydrated according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, germination and outgrowth of C. perfringens was observed when the sample was subjected to unusual temperatures during storage, such as at 30 degree C for 15 h. C. perfringens spores survived in saeng-sik with very low water activity. Because C. perfringens could germinate and grow under such conditions, care must be taken to avoid initial contamination of C. perfringens during the manufacturing process. Our model developed with samples with different microbial communities provides useful information for next-generation microbiological risk assessment taking into consideration the ecology of the food-associated microbial community.

Bioethanol has been researched as a potential alternative to substitute liquid fossil fuels due to its eco-friendly characteristics and relatively low production cost when compared to other bio-based fuels. First generation bioethanol is produced from raw materials rich in simple sugars or starch, such as sugarcane and corn, which are food sources. To avoid the fuel versus food dilemma, second generation bioethanol aims at using non-edible raw materials, as lignocellulosic agricultural residues, as source of fermentable sugars. Hydrolysis with sub/supercritical water has demonstrated great potential to decompose the lignocellulosic complex into simple sugars with several advantages over conventional processes. This review provides an overview of the state of the art on hydrolysis with sub- and supercritical water in the context of the reuse of agricultural residues to produce suitable fermentation substrates for the production of second generation bioethanol. Recent applications and advances are put into context together, providing an insight into future research trends.