Resumen La falta de agua constituye uno de los principales problemas de la humanidad, por lo que se requiere gestionar el recurso con esquemas de valores de existencia y legado; es decir, con valor de no uso. La eficiencia en el uso del agua es una condición necesaria pero no suficiente para la garantizar la sustentabilidad del recurso. La valoración del agua para uso agrícola debe fortalecer el soporte a las decisiones sobre los retos y las preguntas asociadas a la imperiosa necesidad de garantizar el recurso para las generaciones actuales y futuras (sustentabilidad). El presente trabajo se llevó a cabo en la sub cuenca del Río Duero, Michoacán. Con el objetivo de valorar el agua de riego como insumo en la producción de fresa. Los resultados al aplicar el método de cambio de productividad, muestran una renta de $106 215.30 ha-1, superior a la obtenida en los cultivos de maíz y trigo, y un valor de agua de: $3.67 m-3. La importancia del recurso hídrico, como derecho humano no significa regalarla, pero debe establecerse un nivel mínimo de provisión innegable por encima del cual los usuarios deben hacer un uso responsable y generar cultura por el pago del servicio ecosistémico y no solo de su administración. La responsabilidad social debe ser en cualquier actividad económica; a través de ella, se debe contribuir a la conservación y mantenimiento de los ecosistemas naturales que proveen los bienes y servicios ecosistémicos como el agua. | Abstract The lack of water constitutes one of the main problems of humanity, so it is necessary to manage this resource with values of existence and legacy schemes; that is, with non-use value.Efficiency in water use is a necessary but not sufficient condition to ensure this resource sustainability. The assessment of water for agricultural use should undoubtedly contribute to strengthening decisions support on the challenges and questions associated with the imperative need to ensure the resource for present and future generations (sustainability). This research was carried out in the sub basin of the Duero River, Michoacán. With the objective of assessing irrigation water as an input in strawberry production. Results when applying the method of productivity changing showed income of $106 215.30 per hectare higher than that obtained in maize and wheat crops, and a monetary value of water: $3.67 m-3. The importance of water resource as a human right does not mean giving it away, but a minimum level of undeniable provision must be established above which users must make responsible use and generate culture for the payment of the ecosystem service and not only for their administration. Social responsibility must be the constant in any economic activity; and it must contribute to the conservation and maintenance of natural ecosystems that provide ecosystem goods and services such as water.

Stream water quality is controlled by the interaction of natural and anthropogenic factors over a range of temporal and spatial scales. Among these anthropogenic factors, land cover changes at catchment scale can affect stream water quality. This work aims to evaluate the influence of land use and seasonality on stream water quality in a representative tropical headwater catchment named as Córrego Água Limpa (Sao Paulo, Brasil), which is highly influenced by intensive agricultural activities and urban areas. Two systematic sampling approach campaigns were implemented with six sampling points along the stream of the headwater catchment to evaluate water quality during the rainy and dry seasons. Three replicates were collected at each sampling point in 2011. Electrical conductivity, nitrates, nitrites, sodium superoxide, Chemical Oxygen Demand (DQO), colour, turbidity, suspended solids, soluble solids and total solids were measured. Water quality parameters differed among sampling points, being lower at the headwater sampling point (0m above sea level), and then progressively higher until the last downstream sampling point (2500m above sea level). For the dry season, the mean discharge was 39.5ls⁻¹ (from April to September) whereas 113.0ls⁻¹ were averaged during the rainy season (from October to March). In addition, significant temporal and spatial differences were observed (P<0.05) for the fourteen parameters during the rainy and dry period. The study enhance significant relationships among land use and water quality and its temporal effect, showing seasonal differences between the land use and water quality connection, highlighting the importance of multiple spatial and temporal scales for understanding the impacts of human activities on catchment ecosystem services.

Asia has been experiencing rapid industrialization, urbanization, and economic growth in recent decades. Taiwan was one of the 4 Asian dragons, regions that experienced rapid industrialization and exceptionally high growth rates between the early 1960s and 1990s, but at a high cost to the environment, and thus, it was heavily polluted. Estuaries are highly dynamic and diverse ecosystems that provide multiple ecosystem services that maintain marine ecosystem health and benefit humankind. However, estuaries and the ecosystem services they provide are rapidly degrading due to increasing pressures and changes, especially those in populous, urban areas. Social–environmental analysis integrates scientific information and social activities and thereby provides a comprehensive understanding for the multiparty, joint decision-making processes necessary for successful, sustainable management. In this study, 60 years of economic data and 26 years of water quality data are examined using social–environmental frameworks, the driver-pressurestate-impact-response framework, and the systems approach framework to analyze the management of water quality for an estuary in a populous urban area, the Tamsui River estuary, in Taiwan. Potential societal responses and management measures are identified that can be implemented to reduce human activities, diminish pressure, ameliorate water quality, and enhance the state of the estuarine systems in the Tamsui River and its estuary. The recommended societal responses are increased education, the establishment of community-based river rangers, wetland and mangrove conservation, the development of a circular economy, the implementation of governance measures, and improvements in monitoring and assessments. Improvement of the water quality in the Tamsui River estuary increases the hedonic value of property for people who live near the riverside. Currently, the number of tourists and tourism-based businesses have increased. Nevertheless, improvements in water quality in the Tamsui River estuary bring well-being and benefits that could be further enhanced to increase the cost/benefit relation of the management measures. | MOST 108-2611-M-019-021 | info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Esta tesis busca evidenciar que existen relaciones conexas al agua entre municipios tan consistentes para conformar una región fuera de sus fronteras administrativas convencionales; y que al fortalecerlas, y establecer roles de los actores que intervienen en la misma se logrará la sostenibilidad del servicios ecosistémico de abastecimiento de agua potable, este trabajo fue realizado con el uso de análisis factorial, cartográfico, estructural y de actores; donde se utilizaron entre otros datos del Estudio nacional del agua que muestran las cifras del trasvase de cuencas desde el PNN Chingaza a la Sabana de Bogotá. | This Thesis seeks to demonstrate that existing water relations between municipalities are consistent to form a region outside its administrative boundaries. And strengthening and establishing roles for actors. It will be to help the sustainability of water drinking as ecosystems service, this work was performed using factorial, mapping, structural, a actors and cartography analysis; were used among other data of the National Study of water that demonstrate water transfer between watershed from PNN Chingaza to the " Sabana de Bogota ".

Abstract The lack of water constitutes one of the main problems of humanity, so it is necessary to manage this resource with values of existence and legacy schemes; that is, with non-use value.Efficiency in water use is a necessary but not sufficient condition to ensure this resource sustainability. The assessment of water for agricultural use should undoubtedly contribute to strengthening decisions support on the challenges and questions associated with the imperative need to ensure the resource for present and future generations (sustainability). This research was carried out in the sub basin of the Duero River, Michoacán. With the objective of assessing irrigation water as an input in strawberry production. Results when applying the method of productivity changing showed income of $106 215.30 per hectare higher than that obtained in maize and wheat crops, and a monetary value of water: $3.67 m-3. The importance of water resource as a human right does not mean giving it away, but a minimum level of undeniable provision must be established above which users must make responsible use and generate culture for the payment of the ecosystem service and not only for their administration. Social responsibility must be the constant in any economic activity; and it must contribute to the conservation and maintenance of natural ecosystems that provide ecosystem goods and services such as water. | Resumen La falta de agua constituye uno de los principales problemas de la humanidad, por lo que se requiere gestionar el recurso con esquemas de valores de existencia y legado; es decir, con valor de no uso. La eficiencia en el uso del agua es una condición necesaria pero no suficiente para la garantizar la sustentabilidad del recurso. La valoración del agua para uso agrícola debe fortalecer el soporte a las decisiones sobre los retos y las preguntas asociadas a la imperiosa necesidad de garantizar el recurso para las generaciones actuales y futuras (sustentabilidad). El presente trabajo se llevó a cabo en la sub cuenca del Río Duero, Michoacán. Con el objetivo de valorar el agua de riego como insumo en la producción de fresa. Los resultados al aplicar el método de cambio de productividad, muestran una renta de $106 215.30 ha-1, superior a la obtenida en los cultivos de maíz y trigo, y un valor de agua de: $3.67 m-3. La importancia del recurso hídrico, como derecho humano no significa regalarla, pero debe establecerse un nivel mínimo de provisión innegable por encima del cual los usuarios deben hacer un uso responsable y generar cultura por el pago del servicio ecosistémico y no solo de su administración. La responsabilidad social debe ser en cualquier actividad económica; a través de ella, se debe contribuir a la conservación y mantenimiento de los ecosistemas naturales que proveen los bienes y servicios ecosistémicos como el agua.

Os serviços ecossistêmicos relacionados ao solo e à água se destacam nas paisagens rurais, principalmente no que tange à produção agropecuária. Por meio das relações solo- água é que muitos serviços ecossistêmicos são gerados e relacionados aos processos de infiltração e recarga de aquíferos, escoamento superficial da água no solo, transferência de água para as plantas, provisão de alimentos, evapotranspiração, manutenção da umidade e biodiversidade dos solos, ciclagem e transporte de nutrientes, estoque de carbono e outros. O presente estudo realizou um levantamento na literatura, focando em metodologias para a avaliação de serviços ecossistêmicos de solo e água, na multifuncionalidade da paisagem rural e na diversidade dos serviços ecossistêmicos gerados, em políticas públicas correlatas e nas oportunidades e nos desafios relacionados à sua gestão. Também foram apresentados dois estudos de caso, desenvolvidos pelos autores, em que se realizou avaliação de serviços ecossistêmicos de solo e água em diferentes agroecossistemas na região sul (Paraná) e central (Rio de Janeiro) do bioma Mata Atlântica. Concluiu-se que, no Brasil, os métodos de avaliação e valoração dos serviços ecossistêmicos do solo e da água ainda precisam ser aprimorados e validados em diferentes escalas e que é preciso valorizar o papel dos produtores rurais para a conservação e manejo adequado dos serviços ecossistêmicos em agroecossistemas e na paisagem rural. | Título em inglês: Opportunities and challenges related to soil and water ecosystem services in the rural landscape.

The good environmental status of fragile natural areas and the preservation of ecosystem functions are critical to the quality of life. However, anthropogenic pressures put at jeopardy ecosystem services (ES) provided by natural habitats. Fragile marine, coastal, estuarine and freshwater socio-ecological systems (MCEF-SES), specifically, are put under stress by heavy industrialization, rapid urbanization and growing tourism demand. High-risk water pollution (HRWP) is one of the most harmful events threatening natural ecosystems and HRWP abatement measures are needed to address the problem. While diffuse-source water pollution abatement strategies and measures – from mitigation to adaptation – have been extensively identified and assessed, environmentaleconomic (EE) studies on HRWP abatement strategies and measures are still lacking. Hence, the overall objective of this thesis is to address this gap and develop an environmental-economic deterministic optimal control approach (EEDOA) to explore rates of HRWP abatement that maximize net societal welfare (NSW). Aiming at offering insights into the optimal approach to balance socioeconomic growth and environmental protection on the pathway towards sustainable development of MCEF-SES, an application is provided for the case of the Ria de Aveiro (RdA) Natura 2000 coastal lagoon in Portugal. To this end, the spatially explicit InVEST-HRA model is combined with meta-analytic value function transfer (MA-VFT) to assess HRWP abatement benefits. After identifying, assessing and mapping HRWP risk-sources and the risks they pose to MCEF-SES, the impact of HRWP on ES values is estimated, several HRWP abatement measures (scenarios) are identified and the impact of these measures on ES risk and values is assessed. Subsequently, following estimation of the costs of HRWP abatement measures, an EE-DOA is applied to identify the optimal rates of HRWP abatement and the portfolios of HRWP abatement measures that maximize NSW. Results show that the negative environmental impacts and ES value losses from HRWP can be large and vary with the type of pollutant, the geographic location of pollution leakage, the geological features and biological characteristics of impacted area, climatological circumstances and the way contaminants spread through the water system. Albeit large parts of ES values remain “outside the market”, for the RdA Natura 2000 area it is shown that HRWP is responsible for a total ES value loss of around 8 million €*yearˉ¹. Results also show that the implementation of single HRWP abatement measures can decrease habitat risks by up to -4.6% and lead to an increase in corresponding ES values of ~0.8% (+436.9 k€*yearˉ¹). Combined HRWP abatement measures can decrease habitat risks by up to -8.4% and lead to an increase in ES values of up to 1.7% (+986.0 k€*yearˉ¹). Considering benefits as well as costs of HRWP abatement, results show that HRWP abatement benefits exceed costs for ranges of HRWP abatement between 0% to ~8%, and that NSW is maximized at ~4.0% HRWP abatement, amounting to 229,626€*yearˉ¹. Hence, it is shown that the EE-DAO decision support tool can support ecosystem-based management, enhance the good environmental status of MCEF-SES, and support the balancing between development and environmental protection – thus minimizing ESV losses and maximizing regional welfare. Hence, mainstreaming investments in HRWP abatement in MCEF-SES can be a beneficial and efficient (societal welfare increasing) strategy. However, the whole potential of HRWP abatement measures will be fully assessed only if also HRWP abatement co-benefits are quantified and counted in. Hence this study contributes to the discussion on production-protection dynamics, uncovering possibilities on how to halt ongoing environmental degradation and biodiversity loss while increasing societal welfare. | A boa qualidade ambiental das áreas naturais mais frágeis e a preservação das funções dos ecossistemas naturais são aspetos críticos para a qualidade da vida. Contudo, pressões antropogénicas várias continuam a pôr em risco os serviços do ecossistema (SE) proporcionados pelos habitats naturais. Os sistemas sócio-ecológicos marinhos, costeiros, estuarinos e de água doce (SSE-MCEAD) estão particularmente expostos às pressões da industrialização, da urbanização acelerada e da crescente procura turística. A poluição aquática de risco elevado (PARE) é um dos problemas que mais ameaçam os ecossistemas naturais, cuja solução requer medidas específicas. A poluição aquática de origem difusa e as respetivas estratégias e medidas de redução – da mitigação à adaptação – têm sido largamente investigadas; contudo, continuam a faltar estudos económico-ambientais aplicados à PARE e às suas estratégias e medidas de redução. Neste sentido, esta tese de doutoramento tem como objetivo global colmatar esta lacuna de conhecimento e desenvolver uma abordagem económico-ambiental determinística de controlo otimizado (AEAD-CO), para investigar quais as taxas de redução de poluição que maximizam o bem-estar societal líquido (BESL). Visando oferecer novas perspetivas sobre como otimizar o equilíbrio entre o crescimento socioeconómico e a proteção ambiental, numa via para o desenvolvimento sustentável de SSE-MCEAD, é apresentada uma aplicação do modelo proposto a uma das áreas lagunares costeiras da rede Natura 2000 em Portugal, a Ria de Aveiro (RdA). Com este objetivo, os benefícios das medidas de redução da poluição aquática de risco elevado (MR-PARE) são estimados recorrendo à aplicação combinada do modelo especialmente explícito do InVEST-HRA com a metodologia de valoração dos SE por “transferência da função-valor metanalítica” (TFV-MA). Após identificação, avaliação e mapeamento das fontes de PARE e dos respetivos níveis de risco para os SSE-MCEAD, é estimado o impacto que a PARE tem no valor dos serviços do ecossistema (VSE), são definidos vários cenários (medidas) para a redução da PARE e é avaliado o impacto destas MR-PARE quer no nível de risco para os SE quer no VSE. De seguida, após estimação dos custos das MR-PARE selecionadas, é aplicada a AEAD-CO para determinar os portfólios de MR-PARE e respetivas taxas de redução da PARE que maximizam o BESL. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que os impactos negativos nos VSE podem ser significativos, mas variam em função do tipo de agente poluidor, da localização geográfica do derrame de poluição, das características geológicas e/ou biológicas da área impactada, das circunstâncias climatéricas, e da forma como os contaminantes se espalham nos sistemas aquáticos. Embora uma grande parte do VSE permaneça “fora dos mercados”, é demonstrado que para o caso da RdA a PARE é responsável por uma perda total de cerca de 8 milhões € / ano. Os resultados mostram ainda que a implementação de MR-PARE individuais podem reduzir o risco dos habitats até -4.6% e levar a um aumento no VSE de cerca de 0.8% (+436.9 mil € / ano), enquanto as medidas MR-PARE combinadas (várias tecnologias) podem reduzir o risco dos habitats até -8.4% e levar a um aumento no VSE de cerca de 1.7% (+986.0 mil € / ano). Considerando tanto os benefícios como os custos, os resultados obtidos mostram que, para o intervalo entre os 0% e os ~8% de redução da PARE, os benefícios das MR-PARE ultrapassam os custos e que o BESL é maximizado com ~4.0% de redução da PARE, onde atinge os 229.626 € / ano. É, pois, demonstrado que as ferramentas AEAD-CO, podem dar suporte a uma gestão baseada no ecossistema mais eficiente, reforçar a boa qualidade ambiental dos SSE-MCEAD e apoiar o balanceamento entre o desenvolvimento e a proteção ambiental, minimizando as perdas de VSE e maximizando o bem-estar regional. Assim sendo, generalizar os investimentos em MR-PARE nos SSE-MCEAD pode ser uma estratégia vantajosa e eficiente para as sociedades (que aumenta o bem-estar societal). Contudo, o BESL constitui um patamar mínimo, dado que a totalidade do potencial dos benefícios proporcionados pelas MR-PARE só será plenamente avaliada quando todos os co-benefícios das medidas de redução PARE forem quantificados e incorporados na análise, incluindo o valor acrescentado dos produtos “colaterais” e de todas as externalidades – positivas e negativas - geradas pelas medidas implementadas. No seu conjunto, este trabalho de investigação contribui para o debate sobre a dinâmica “desenvolvimento / proteção ambiental”, apontando alternativas para se travar a degradação ambiental e a perda da biodiversidade atualmente em curso ao mesmo tempo que se aumenta o bem-estar societal. | Programa Doutoral em Ciência, Tecnologia e Gestão do Mar

En los últimos años, el concepto de Soluciones basadas en la Naturaleza (SbN) ha ganado reconocimiento internacional como herramienta para contribuir al desarrollo sostenible. Esto ha venido motivado por una mayor concreción y definición del concepto y una serie de acuerdos internacionales. No obstante, su aplicación en los países sigue siendo escasa. Concretamente, en el sector hídrico siguen siendo preferidas otras soluciones de infraestructura gris consideradas más eficientes para hacer frente a los retos de la gestión de la cantidad, calidad y variabilidad del agua. Así, las SbN para la gestión del agua todavía se enfrentan a varios desafíos que limitan su implementación. La Unión Europea ha puesto en marcha una serie de actuaciones para tratar de resolver estos desafíos: estrategias de acción, normativa y una serie de programas de financiación enfocados en la investigación e innovación mediante el diseño e implementación de proyectos de SbN. | In recent years, the concept of Nature-based Solutions (NBS) seems to have gained international recognition as a potential tool to contribute to sustainable development. This has been motivated by a further specification and concretion of the concept and the creation of several international agreements. However, its implementation at country level remains weak. In the water sector in particular, other grey infrastructure solutions that are considered more efficient in addressing the challenges of managing water quantity, quality and variability are still preferred. Thus, NBS for water management still face several challenges that limit their implementation. The European Union has launched numerous actions to address these challenges: action strategies, regulations and a series of funding programmes focused on research and innovation through the design and implementation of NBS projects.

Abstract: Cloud Forests (CFs) in Michoacan, Mexico, face strong pressures due to logging and the change of land use to agriculture, which can affect the ecological functions of the soil. This study identifies the main soils of a CF in Michoacan, and evaluates its contensts of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) and water-retention capacity. The sampling design was stratified, considering different slope positions. Eight profiles of soils of 1 m in depth were characterized using standard methods. The soil groups identified, Andosol, Alisol, Umbrisol, displayed high degrees of weathering, high to neutral acidities, and a low saturation of bases. The SOC content fluctuated between 92 and 152 Mg ha-1; 55 % of this was distributed in the first 30 cm, and no differences were observed between soil groups. Water retention at high tension (HT, 1500 kPa) and low tension (LT, 30 kPa) varied from 98 to 284 L m-2, and from 249 to 510 L m-2, respectively. At a depth of 60 cm, where fine roots concentrate, the available water (AW) fluctuated between 107 and 167 L m-2, with no differences between soil groups. Water retention at HT had a negative correlation with the proportion of sands and the bulk density, whereas LT had a positive correlation with the concentration of SOC, and a negative one with bulk density. The AW had a positive correlation with the SOC concentration. The study confirms the importance of the CF in the storage of SOC and indicates that the SOC is determinant in the availability of water. Given the accumulation of SOC on the soil surface, carbon and water retention can be very sensitive to anthropogenic disturbances. | Resumen: Los bosques de niebla (BN) de Michoacán, México, enfrentan fuertes presiones de extracción forestal y cambio de uso de suelo a agricultura, las cuales pueden afectar las funciones ecológicas de los suelos. En este estudio se identificaron los principales suelos de un BN en Michoacán, y se evaluaron sus contenidos de carbono orgánico (COS) y capacidad de retención de agua. El diseño del muestreo fue estratificado, considerando diferentes posiciones de ladera. Ocho perfiles de suelo de 1 m de profundidad se caracterizaron con métodos estándar. Los grupos de suelo identificados, Andosol, Alisol, Umbrisol, mostraron un grado de intemperismo relativamente alto, acidez de alta a neutra y saturación de bases baja. El contenido de COS osciló de 92 a 152 Mg ha-1, el 55 % se distribuyó en los primeros 30 cm, y no hubo diferencias de contenido entre grupos de suelo. La retención de agua a tensión alta (TA, 1500 kPa) y baja (TB, 30 kPa) varió de 98 a 284 L m-2 y de 249 a 510 L m-2, respectivamente. A 60 cm de profundidad, donde las raíces finas se concentran, el agua disponible (AD) osciló de 107 a 167 L m-2, sin diferencias entre grupos de suelos. La retención de agua a TA tuvo correlación negativa con la proporción de arenas y la densidad aparente, mientras que a TB tuvo correlación positiva con la concentración de COS y negativa con la densidad aparente. El AD tuvo correlación positiva con la concentración de COS. El estudio confirma la importancia del BN en el almacenamiento de COS, e indica que el COS es determinante en la disponibilidad de agua. Dada la acumulación de COS en el suelo superficial, la retención de carbono y agua pueden ser muy sensibles a las perturbaciones antropogénicas.