Climate change is at the top of the development agenda in Central America. This region, together with the Caribbean, is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change in Latin America. Climate change is manifesting itself through higher average temperatures and more frequent droughts that result in higher water stress, and through the rising frequency of extreme weather events such as tropical storms, hurricanes, floods and landslides, all of which pose significant challenges in the rural water supply and sanitation sector. The paper starts with a review of the historic data on temperature and precipitation trends in Central America and particularly at the regional level in Nicaragua. The data reveal a clear trend of the growing climate variability, increased water stress for crops, and greater frequency of extreme weather events. The rising intensity and frequency of ex-treme weather events is among the most critical risks to the region's development agenda, and they translate into high economic losses. This paper examines the impacts and implications of potential climate change on water resources in Nicaragua and makes key recommendations to integrate climate change and rural water supply and sanitation policies and programs in a way that increase resilience to current and future climate conditions. | 0

Radon has been used to determine groundwater velocity and groundwater discharge into wetlands at the southern downstream boundary of the Crau aquifer, southeastern France. This aquifer constitutes an important high-quality freshwater resource exploited for agriculture, industry and human consumption. An increase in salinity occurs close to the sea, highlighting the need to investigate the water balance and groundwater behavior. Darcy velocity was estimated using radon activities in well waters according to the Hamada “single-well method” (involving comparison with radon in groundwater in the aquifer itself). Measurements done at three depths (7, 15 and 21 m) provided velocity ranging from a few mm/day to more than 20 cm/day, with highest velocities observed at the 15-m depth. Resulting hydraulic conductivities agree with the known geology. Waters showing high radon activity and high salinity were found near the presumed shoreline at 3,000 years BP, highlighting the presence of ancient saltwater. Radon activity has also been measured in canals, rivers and ponds, to trace groundwater discharges and evaluate water balance. A model of the radon spatial evolution explains the observed radon activities. Groundwater discharge to surface water is low in pond waters (4 % of total inputs) but significant in canals (55 l/m²/day).

Over-exploited groundwater is expected to remain the predominant source of domestic water in suburban areas of Hanoi, Vietnam. In order to evaluate the effect on groundwater recharge, of decreasing surface-water bodies and land-use change caused by urbanization, the relevant groundwater systems and recharge pathways must be characterized in detail. To this end, water levels and water quality were monitored for 3 years regarding groundwater and adjacent surface-water bodies, at two typical suburban sites in Hanoi. Stable isotope (δ¹⁸O, δD of water) analysis and hydrochemical analysis showed that the water from both aquifers and aquitards, including the groundwater obtained from both the monitoring wells and the neighboring household tubewells, was largely derived from evaporation-affected surface-water bodies (e.g., ponds, irrigated farmlands) rather than from rivers. The water-level monitoring results suggested distinct local-scale flow systems for both a Holocene unconfined aquifer (HUA) and Pleistocene confined aquifer (PCA). That is, in the case of the HUA, lateral recharge through the aquifer from neighboring ponds and/or irrigated farmlands appeared to be dominant, rather than recharge by vertical rainwater infiltration. In the case of the PCA, recharge by the above-lying HUA, through areas where the aquitard separating the two aquifers was relatively thin or nonexistent, was suggested. As the decrease in the local surface-water bodies will likely reduce the groundwater recharge, maintaining and enhancing this recharge (through preservation of the surface-water bodies) is considered as essential for the sustainable use of groundwater in the area.

Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is an efficient way to remove organic matter from raw water and, at the same time, reduce temperature variation. Two MAR sites were constructed by Karlskrona municipality on Johannishus Esker in Sweden. One of these sites, Vång, was monitored for electrical conductivity and electrical resistivity (using electrical resistivity tomography - ERT) during a 9-week tracer infiltration test. The aim of the monitoring was to map the pathways of the infiltrated water, with the overall goal to increase the efficiency of the MAR. ERT proved useful in determining both the nature of the esker formation and the water migration pathways. In Vång, the esker ridge follows a tectonically controlled paleo-valley. The fault/fracture zone in the bedrock along this paleo-valley was mapped. During the tracer test, the infiltrated water was detected in the area close to the infiltration ponds, whereas far-situated observation wells were less affected. For sequential infiltration and recharge periods in MAR, the timing of the well pumping is another important factor. Natural groundwater flow direction was a determinant in the infiltration process, as expected. ERT measurements provide supplementary data for site selection, for monitoring the functionality of the MAR sites, and for revealing the geological, hydrogeological and structural characteristics of the site.

A significant volume of an aquifer along the coastline in the German Bight is salinized by seawater intrusion. The mean sea-level rise (MSLR) is expected to continue in the future due to global climatic change, subsequently degrading the fresh groundwater resources. To impede further salinization in the future, a solution is proposed based on weir construction in an existing canal hydraulically connected to the aquifer. The effect is twofold: (1) the elevated groundwater level can upgrade present fresh groundwater resources by shifting the saltwater–freshwater interface position further seaward, or by inhibiting its landward movement, and (2) the inland water level can be elevated, expanding surface water ponds. A fully coupled three-dimensional numerical surface-subsurface model (a modified HydroGeoSphere code) was used to simulate the effects of variable weir construction heights under different MSLR rates, and to quantify the gain of aquifer freshwater volume and loss of usable land due to surface ponding. Construction of a higher weir increases the desalinized aquifer volume and decreases the newly salinized aquifer volume under future MSLR. A minimum height of a weir was determined under a certain MSLR rate to maintain the present freshwater resource. Both weir construction and MSLR can cause the loss of land usage. Computed loss-gain ratio curves can be utilized to determine the optimal weir height, meeting the economic requirements of coastal land management under future MSLR.

Extensive hydrogeological investigations followed by three-dimensional groundwater flow and contaminant transport modelling were carried out around a proposed uranium tailings pond at Seripalli in Andhra Pradesh, India, to estimate its radiological impact. The hydrogeological parameters and measured groundwater level were used to model the groundwater flow and contaminant transport from the uranium tailings pond using a finite-element-based model. The simulated groundwater level compares reasonably with the observed groundwater level. Subsequently, the transport of long-lived radionuclides such as 238U, 234U, 230Th and 226Ra from the proposed tailings pond was modelled. The ingrowths of progenies were also considered in the modelling. It was observed that these radionuclides move very little from the tailings pond, even at the end of 10,000 y, due to their high distribution coefficients and low groundwater velocities. These concentrations were translated into committed effective dose rates at different distances in the vicinity of the uranium tailings pond. The results indicated that the highest effective dose rate to members of the public along the groundwater flow pathway is 2.5 times lower than the drinking water guideline of 0.1 mSv/y, even after a long time period of 10,000 y.

Rapid population growth in sub-Saharan West Africa and related cropland expansion were shown in some places to have increased focused recharge through ponds, raising the water table. To estimate changes in diffuse recharge, the water content and matric potential were monitored during 2009 and 2010, and modeling was performed using the Hydrus-1D code for two field sites in southwest Niger: (1) fallow land and (2) rainfed millet cropland. Monitoring results of the upper 10 m showed increased water content and matric potential to greater depth under rainfed cropland (>2.5 m) than under fallow land (≤1.0 m). Model simulations indicate that conversion from fallow land to rainfed cropland (1) increases vadose-zone water storage and (2) should increase drainage flux (∼25 mm year⁻¹) at 10-m depth after a 30–60 year lag. Therefore, observed regional increases in groundwater storage may increasingly result from diffuse recharge, which could compensate, at least in part, groundwater withdrawal due to observed expansion in irrigated surfaces; and hence, contribute to mitigate food crises in the Sahel.