This study examines how environmental issues have been addressed in the water sector in Brazil, within the context of activities of the Federal Government, generally, and those implemented under Bank sector operations, in particular. The core focus of the study lies in the management of water quality, as it affects both the users of raw water, and those who are primarily concerned with the disposal of wastewater. The report considers the following three sectoral areas concomitantly - water resources management, water supply and sanitation, and, the environment - thus limiting its review, and focus to those themes which are key to the over-arching issue of water quality. Water resources management in the country relied upon heavy investments in medium, and large scale projects that provided basic infrastructure for water uses. However, these have produced questionable impacts in terms of reducing poverty, and inequality. One of the reasons for this, has been the poor infrastructure management, which despite its importance, has been largely underestimated. While improvements in the utilization of existing infrastructure in the water sector remain critical, it needs to be complemented by incentives to both service providers, and water users. Moreover, low economic, environmental, and social returns from investments in the water sector, reflect the tendency to distract attention from the objectives in the design, and implementation of projects. Thus, an assessment of water quality goals is required, which should be based on systematic evaluations of the costs, and benefits of reaching alternative standards, and explicit social objectives.

D. Kaimowitz, 'Cuatro medio verdales: la relacion bosques y agua en Centroamericana', 2001 | This paper looks at four “half-truths” about the relations between forests and water in Central America. The first is that deforestation has reduced rainfall in certain regions of Central America. The second is that forest help to maintain dry season stream flow. The third is that deforestation has led to more intense flooding. The fourth is that the region’s hydroelectric reservoirs and the Panama Canal are rapidly becoming sedimented. As the name implies, the article argues that each of these has some elements of truth but other aspects that are myths. The author emphasizes that even though some of these claims are myths action still needs to be taken to avoid inappropriate deforestation and forest degradation

Climate change is at the top of the development agenda in Central America. This region, together with the Caribbean, is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change in Latin America. Climate change is manifesting itself through higher average temperatures and more frequent droughts that result in higher water stress, and through the rising frequency of extreme weather events such as tropical storms, hurricanes, floods and landslides, all of which pose significant challenges in the rural water supply and sanitation sector. The paper starts with a review of the historic data on temperature and precipitation trends in Central America and particularly at the regional level in Nicaragua. The data reveal a clear trend of the growing climate variability, increased water stress for crops, and greater frequency of extreme weather events. The rising intensity and frequency of ex-treme weather events is among the most critical risks to the region's development agenda, and they translate into high economic losses. This paper examines the impacts and implications of potential climate change on water resources in Nicaragua and makes key recommendations to integrate climate change and rural water supply and sanitation policies and programs in a way that increase resilience to current and future climate conditions. | 0

Resumen: En las zonas áridas y semiáridas el agua es uno de los factores críticos para la productividad agrícola y pecuaria. La escasez del recurso y el abatimiento de acuíferos son problemas específicos de estas regiones donde la captación de agua de lluvia se vuelve indispensable; sin embargo, no existe información sobre su calidad. Por lo anterior, el objetivo fue determinar la calidad y la aptitud del agua de lluvia captada en bordos de almacenamiento (BA) para su uso en el riego agrícola. Se tomaron muestras de agua de BA ubicados en tres microrregiones del Estado de San Luis Potosí, en las que se determinó el pH, CE (dS m-1), aniones y cationes. Además, se estimaron los índices de Relación de Adsorción de Sodio (RAS), Carbonato sódico residual (CSR), Porcentaje de sodio posible (PSP), Índice de permeabilidad (IP), Índice de Kelly (IK), Dureza, RASaj, Sólidos disueltos totales (SDT), Salinidad efectiva (SE) y Salinidad potencial (SP). Con excepción del magnesio, no hubo diferencias significativas entre microrregiones (p > 0.05). De acuerdo con la clasificación de Wilcox, normas de Riverside y valores de IP, IK, SDT, SE y SP, el agua de BA se clasifica como de buena calidad y es apropiada para riego con potencial para la producción de forraje. | Abstract: In arid and semi-arid areas, water is one of the critical factors for agricultural and livestock productivity. The shortage of the resource and the depletion of aquifers are specific problems of these regions where the collection of rainwater becomes essential, however, there is not information about its quality. Therefore the objective was to determine the quality and suitability of rainwater collected on earthen dams (ED) for use in agricultural irrigation. Water samples were collected from ED located in three micro-regions of the State of San Luis Potosí, where pH, EC (dS m-1), anions and cations were determined. In addition, Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Residual sodium carbonate (RSC), Percentage of possible sodium (PPS), Permeability index (PI), Kelly index (KI), Hardness, SARaj, Total dissolved solids (TDS), Effective salinity (ES) and Potential salinity (PS) were estimated. With the exception of magnesium, there were not significant differences between the micro-regions (p > 0.05). According to the Wilcox classification, Riverside standards and values of PI, KI, TDS, ES y PS, the water of ED is classified as of good quality and is appropriate for irrigation with potential for the production of forage.

En las regiones áridas y semiáridas, como el sureste de España, la disponibilidad de agua de riego en cantidad y calidad suficiente se ha convertido en un factor limitante de la actividad agrícola que ha potenciado la competitividad por los recursos hídricos. Esta situación ha fomentado (i) la construcción masiva de embalses para almacenar agua y garantizar el suministro de los cultivos y (ii) la reutilización de aguas no-convencionales como son las aguas regeneradas que complementen y/o sustituyan los recursos hídricos tradicionales. Las aguas regeneradas suelen contener mayores niveles de nutrientes que las aguas de buena calidad, y por tanto, cuando se almacenan en un embalse de riego, y las condiciones climáticas son favorables, el agua experimenta notables crecimientos de algas y bacterias que pueden perjudicar y reducir la eficiencia de los sistemas de riego. El objetivo de este estudio ha sido evaluar el efecto del almacenaje de un agua regenerada en un embalse de riego sobre la calidad físico-química-microbiológica. Los resultados se han comparado con los obtenidos en un embalse que almacenó agua de buena calidad. Se seleccionaron dos embalses: (i) embalse ubicado en la EDAR de San Javier (SJ) que almacenó agua regenerada y (ii) embalse que recoge agua de buena calidad del trasvase Tajo-Segura situada en Torre Pacheco (TR) . Las variables temperatura del agua, conductividad eléctrica, pH, concentración de clorofila y de oxígeno disuelto se analizaron con una sonda multiparamétrica OTT-DS5. En el laboratorio, se determinó turbidez, sólidos en suspensión y macro y micronutrientes. Finalmente, se realizó el recuento e identificación de algas y se determinó la E-coli. TR mostró una temperatura más reducida durante el experimento como consecuencia de su mayor volumen de almacenamiento. SJ mostró una conductividad eléctrica muy elevada como resultado de las filtraciones de agua salina en los colectores de admisión de agua a la depuradora (proximidad al mar). Durante el primer mes de muestreo, SJ presentó una concentración de clorofila-a elevada (40 g/L), sin embargo, a partir de este momento, las limpiezas progresivas manuales del embalse SJ redujeron la clorofila-a hasta valores similares a los observados en TR. El Oxígeno disuelto se mantuvo en valores próximos a saturación durante la experimentación. La turbidez, la concentración de sólidos en suspensión y E-coli, fueron inferiores a los límites marcados por el Real Decreto 1620/2007 de 7 de diciembre por el que se establece el régimen jurídico de la reutilización de las aguas depuradas, para el uso agrícola más restrictivo (2.1); excepto sólidos en suspensión el primer mes de muestreo. Generalmente, la concentración de macronutrientes (Na, K, Ca, Mg), micronutrientes (Fe, B, Mn) y metales pesados (Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn) fue superior en SJ como consecuencia del almacenamiento del agua regenerada. Además, en SJ se observaron comunidades de macroalgas (Potamogeton pectinatus y Cladophora glomerata). El análisis nutricional de las mismas mostró composiciones nutricionales muy bajas en comparación con otros estudios realizados sobre algas. Los resultados de este estudio, principalmente el desarrollo de micro y macroalgas en el embalse que almacenó agua regenerada con elevada carga de nutrientes, ha permitido justificar la necesidad de adoptar medidas dirigidas a la mejora de la calidad del agua para su uso posterior en riego. | Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Industrial | Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena

Proyecto de Graduación (Licenciatura en Ingeniería en Biotecnología) Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Escuela de Biología, 2020 | Las cianotoxinas son contaminantes cada vez más frecuentes a nivel mundial en el agua potable procedente de aguas superficiales, debido a que las condiciones del cambio climático pueden aumentar la proliferación de las cianobacterias. La presencia de estas toxinas en el agua potable puede generar diferentes problemas a la salud como: daño hepático y daño a nivel neurológico. En Costa Rica, los análisis de cianobacterias en agua potable se realizan en casos excepcionales como cuando ocurren intoxicaciones masivas, por lo tanto, actualmente son escasos los datos que se tienen sobre las cianobacterias y sus toxinas: En 1994, Peinador aisló tres especies de cianobacterias de la Planta Potabilizadora de Tres Ríos, y en el año 2006 Avendaño y Arguedas encontraron en el agua cruda de la Planta Potabilizadora de Tres Ríos concentraciones superiores a lo establecido en la normativa. En este estudio se analizaron los datos suministrados por el ICE (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad) sobre el embalse El Llano (fuente de la planta potabilizadora de Cartago) de los parámetros de temperatura, pH, fósforo total y amonio de las épocas entre 2016-2018, para determinar si con las características históricas del embalse, se podrían desarrollar las cianobacterias; además se empleó la técnica de espectrofotometría con el kit comercial Mycrocistest® para determinar la concentración de microcistinas tóxicas en el agua cruda y tratada de la planta potabilizadora de Cartago. Tras el análisis de los datos históricos se encontró que, con las características históricas de los parámetros analizados, si era posible el crecimiento de las cianobacterias y por ende de la producción de toxinas. Al realizar los ensayos, no se detectaron microcistinas (Mcs) en concentraciones iguales o superiores a 0,25 μg/L, lo que podría deberse a algunos factores como la presencia de sedimentos en el embalse, la biodegradación de las Mcs por parte de los microorganismos que crecen en el embalse, el corto tiempo de retención del embalse, entre otros. No obstante, no se descarta en el futuro, la presencia de cianobacterias, ni de cianotoxinas, por lo que se recomienda establecer un monitoreo de vigilancia de las densidades de cianobacterias presentes en el agua cruda de la planta y en caso de detectar densidades importantes, realizar una prueba de toxidad. | Cyanotoxins are an increasingly frequent pollutant worldwide in drinking water from surface waters, as the conditions of climate change can increase the proliferation of cyanobacteria. The presence of these toxins in drinking water can generate different health problems, such as liver damage and neurological damage. In Costa Rica, the analysis of cyanobacteria in drinking water is carried out in exceptional cases such as when massive intoxications occur, therefore, currently there is little data on cyanobacteria and their toxins: In 1994, Peinador isolated three species of cyanobacteria of the Tres Ríos drinking water treatment Plant, and in 2006 Avendaño and Arguedas found in the raw water of the same plant concentrations higher than that established in the regulations. In this study, the data provided by the ICE (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad) on the El Llano reservoir (source of the Cartago drinking water treatment plant) of the parameters of temperature, pH, total phosphorus and ammonium of the periods between 2016-2018 were analyzed, to determine if with the historical characteristics of the reservoir, cyanobacteria could be developed. In addition, the spectrophotometric technique was used with the commercial Mycrocistest® kit to determine the concentration of toxic microcystins in the raw and treated water of the Cartago drinking water treatment plant. After analyzing the historical data, it was found that with the historical characteristics of the analyzed parameters, there is the possible for the growth of cyanobacteria and therefore the production of toxins. When performing the tests, no microcystins (Mcs) were detected in concentrations equal to or greater than 0.25 μg / L, which could be due to some factors such as the presence of sediments in the reservoir, the biodegradation of the Mcs by the microorganisms that grow in the reservoir, the short retention time of the reservoir, among others. However, the presence of cyanobacteria or cyanotoxins is not ruled out in the future, so it is recommended to establish surveillance monitoring of the densities of cyanobacteria present in the raw water of the plant and in case of detecting significant densities, perform a toxicity test.

La financiación para el presente trabajo fue obtenida del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (HERA, CGL2014-52362-R), por el Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (CRONOS RTI2018-098849-B-I00), y fondos FEDER. E.L-P. tuvo un contrato predoctoral de Formación del Profesorado Universitario (FPU014/02917). | Se examinan los contenidos de nitrógeno total (NT), fósforo total (PT) y las relaciones NT/PT, en 12 embalses del sur-este de la Península Ibérica, con objeto de indagar en la influencia del uso del suelo en las cuencas de captación sobre el estado trófico de estos sistemas. Los embalses mostraron relaciones NT/PT que indican limitación por P o co-limitación según el sistema considerado. Según los análisis de regresión en árbol univariados efectuados, sólo el porcentaje de áreas cultivadas clasifica significativamente a los embalses por sus contenidos en P y N, mientras el porcentaje de áreas urbanas agrupa, además, a los embalses por los contenidos en N. La relación positiva encontrada entre el porcentaje de áreas cultivadas y el estado trófico de los embalses, cuantificado según el índice de Carlson (TSI), indica un deterioro en la calidad del agua en los embalses inducido por la actividad agrícola. | We studied the total nitrogen (TN) concentration, the total phosphorus (TP) concentration, and the TN/TP ratios in 12 reservoirs located in the southern Iberian Peninsula, to study the influence of land-use in the reservoir watershed on the trophic status of these systems. The TN/TP ratios indicated limitation by P or co-limitation depending on the system. Only the percentage of agriculture areas significantly classified the reservoirs by their P and N concentrations, while the percentage of urban areas also grouped the reservoirs by their N contents, according to the univariate tree regression analyses. We found a positive relationship between the percentage of agriculture areas and the trophic state of the reservoirs, according to the Carlson index (TSI), that indicates a deterioration in water quality in the reservoirs induced by agricultural activity. | Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (HERA, CGL2014-52362-R) | Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (CRONOS RTI2018-098849-B-I00) | FEDER | FPU014/02917

RESUMEN: Diferentes actividades como la agricultura, la ganadería y los desechos domésticos e industriales, incluyendo los efluentes de las plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales (PTAR), aportan a los embalses además de una alta carga de contaminación microbiológica, nitrógeno, materia orgánica, entre otros. Es el caso del embalse Riogrande II, fuente de agua para una planta de potabilización de agua potable (PTAP). En este trabajo se evalúan las concentraciones de carbón orgánico disuelto (COD), nitrógeno total disuelto, nitratos, nitritos, amonio y fosfato en el agua natural de una PTAP en el periodo septiembre 2011 a abril de 2012 y se correlacionan las concentraciones halladas con la variabilidad del nivel del embalse. Los resultados evidencian concentraciones de nitratos (0.056-0.663 mg/LNO3 --N) superiores a las halladas en estudio anterior (0.005-0.187 mg/L), que sugiere un proceso de contaminación con este nutriente. Las correlaciones con la variación del nivel del embalse indican que durante los periodos de aumento de nivel hay un incremento de la concentración del nitrógeno total disuelto, principalmente en forma de nitratos en el agua captada para la PTAP y el carácter de la materia orgánica se torna mayormente hidrofóbica. | ABSTRACT: Many activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry and domestic and industrial waste, including effluents of wastewater treatment plants contribute to considerable loads of microbiological contamination, nitrogen, phosphorus, organic matter among others. Riogrande II dam which supplies a conventional treatment plant is not an exception to this problem. In this work the dissolved concentration of organic carbon, total nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium and phosphate were evaluated in the influent water of the plant in the period September 2011 to April 2012 and the found concentrations were correlated with the variability of the reservoir level. The results showed nitrate concentrations above those found in previous studies, suggesting a process of nutrients pollution. Correlations with the dam level variation indicate that during the filling period there is an increase of the concentration of nitrogen in the water used for the water purification plant mainly as nitrate and the nature of the organic matter during this period becomes mostly hydrophobic. | COL0009832

River damming, for reservoir formation, causes intense and dramatic changes that creates new environments, with particular structure and functioning. In these systems, flow control and artificial variations in water level are important determinants of the structure of fish assemblages. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the rapid reservoir drawdown on the structure of fish assemblage in a Neotropical reservoir, in southern Brazil, operated by run-of-river. Water level variation was due to one of the spillway gates forfeiture, and caused the water level to vary up to 20 meters. A Canonical Analysis of Principal Coordinates (CAP) was used to summarize the structure of fish assemblage. Later, Spearman correlations were performed between each CAP axes and fish species abundances, to assess the species that most contributed to the observed patterns. The first two CAP axes identified strong spatial scales, while the third axis identified the time scale. The enhanced movement of individuals, coupled with reproductive stimulus were the most remarkable benefits of the reservoir refill. A noticeable negative effect was the loss of many fish that perished during the reservoir drawdown phase, addressed to adverse limnological conditions. Results showed significant benefits of water level variation on fish assemblage, and we suggest that, observed some peculiarities, this variation can be used for stable reservoirs management, as a tool to increase the abundance of fish species. | Os barramentos de rios, para a formação de reservatórios, são modificações intensas e dramáticas que originam novos ambientes, com características próprias de estrutura e funcionamento. Nesses sistemas, o controle da vazão e a variação artificial do nível da água são importantes determinantes da estrutura das assembleias de peixes. Avaliaram-se os efeitos do rebaixamento rápido do nível da água do reservatório sobre a estrutura da assembleia de peixes de um reservatório Neotropical, no sul do Brasil, operado a fio d?água. A variação no nível da água foi provocada pela ruptura de uma das comportas do vertedouro, e fez com que o nível variasse em cerca de 20 metros. Uma Análise Canônica de Coordenadas Principais (CAP) foi utilizada para sumarizar a estrutura da assembleia de peixes. Posteriormente foram feitas correlações de Spearman entre os eixos da CAP e as abundâncias das espécies, para verificar quais mais contribuíram para os padrões observados. Os dois primeiros eixos da CAP identificaram fortes escalas espaciais, enquanto o terceiro eixo identificou a escala temporal de interesse. A maior movimentação dos indivíduos, aliada ao estímulo reprodutivo, decorrentes da variação do nível da água, foram os benefícios mais notáveis da variação do nível da água sobre a assembleia de peixes. Um efeito negativo foi a mortandade de muitos peixes durante o período de rebaixamento do reservatório, atribuída às condições limnológicas desfavoráveis. Os resultados evidenciaram benefícios significativos da variação do nível da água e sugerimos que, observadas algumas particularidades, essa variação possa ser utilizada para o manejo de reservatórios estáveis, como ferramenta para aumentar a abundância das espécies de peixes. | Masters

In the Paraná River basin, similar to what is happening in many others around the world, the systems "River-floodplain" have been changed so important for regulating the flow imposed by impoundments upstream, affecting the intensity, the duration and timing of flooding and, in consequence, the availability of food. Among other impacts that promote downstream reservoirs, stand out those related to retention of the material in suspension, increasing its erosive capacity and increasing the water transparency, and this effect is amplified in rivers that have reservoir cascade. In light of these changes, this thesis aims to assess the effects of reservoirs built upstream from the floodplain of the Upper Paraná River, in view of the importance of integrity in the areas of flooded plains in the maintenance of biological diversity. So in Chapter I, we tried to ascertain whether the inter-annual variations in the attributes of floods (duration, timing, intensity and variability) affect nutritional status of fish, according to the trophic category. That chapter was based on the fact of the flood pulse of changing the composition, quantity and quality of food resources available to fish and that the effluent water from dams has changed its characteristics in relation to the processes of transportation and sedimentation. In Chapter II, we have evaluated the temporal variation in the water transparency in environments with different degrees of influence in the Porto Primavera Reservoir, considering periods before and after its formation, in order to relate this variation with the abundance of a non-native visual fish-predator (Cichla kelberi). | Na bacia do rio Paraná, a exemplo do que vem ocorrendo em muitas outras em todo o mundo, os sistemas "rio-planície de inundação" têm sido alterados de forma relevante pela regulação da vazão imposta por represamentos a montante, afetando a intensidade, a duração e a época de cheias, e, em conseqüência, a disponibilidade de alimento. Entre outros impactos que os reservatórios promovem a jusante destacam-se aqueles ligados a retenção do material em suspensão, elevando sua capacidade erosiva e aumentando a transparência da água, sendo esse efeito amplificado em rios que apresentam reservatórios em cascata. Em função destas alterações, esta tese visa avaliar os efeitos dos reservatórios construídos a montante da planície de inundação do alto rio Paraná, em face da importância da integridade das áreas da planície alagável na manutenção de diversidade biológica. Portanto, no capítulo I procurou-se verificar se as variações inter-anuais nos atributos das cheias (duração, época, intensidade e variabilidade) afetam a condição nutricional de peixes, conforme a categoria trófica. Esse capítulo se baseou no fato dos pulsos de cheias alterarem a composição, quantidade e qualidade dos recursos alimentares disponíveis aos peixes e que a água efluente de barragens tem suas características alteradas em relação aos processos de transporte e sedimentação. No capítulo II, procurou-se avaliar a variação temporal na transparência da água em ambientes com diferentes graus de influência do reservatório de Porto Primavera, considerando períodos anteriores e posteriores à sua formação, no intuito de relacionar essa variação com a abundância de um predador visual não nativo (Cichla kelberi). | PhD