The provision of water supply and sanitation services in Brazil is characterized by different management models, including public or private operators and various legal and institutional arrangements. It is known that the historical trajectory of the sanitation policy in the country has not developed in a linear way and the distribution of institutional models does not follow a clear pattern. Currently, according to data from the National Survey of Basic Sanitation 2008, there is a predominance of regional sanitation companies as leading providers of water supply services in the country, while the local government are responsible for managing the sewage in most locations. What led to this situation? What aspects are related to the decision-making process in the choice of institutional models? Why municipalities choose different models, not observing a standard of service in Brazil? Given that institutional models used at different times may help explain past performance of the sector and suggest future directions, this work aims to contribute to the current discussion, exposing the historical context of occurrence of different water and sanitation institutional models and identifying the factors that conditioned their presence. Using qualitative research methodologies and an innovative quali-quantitative technique in Brazil Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) it was promoted in this study a comparative analysis of the factors conditioning the presence of four different institutional models: direct municipal administration, indirect municipal administration (local autarchy), regional company and private company. Eight localities of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, were selected as case studies, two representing each institutional model. The results suggest that economic factors (lack of municipal resources for investments and ability to access external resources), political factors (influence of public manager in decision making, political contacts and political ideology), social factors (dissatisfaction with the quality of service, popular resistance to payment of tariffs and lack of popular participation), institutional factors (know-how, quality of the services, distance between the provider and the consumer, the tariff price, and financial and administrative autonomy) and legal factors (contractual and legislative issues) have had a strong influence in the adoption and maintenance of water and sanitation institutional models. | A prestação dos serviços de abastecimento de água e esgotamento sanitário no Brasil é caracterizada por modelos de gestão de distintas naturezas, com operadores públicos ou privados e com diferentes arranjos jurídico-institucionais. Atualmente, de acordo com dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Básico de 2008, observa-se o predomínio das companhias estaduais de saneamento básico como principais prestadoras de serviços de abastecimento de água no país, enquanto os municípios ficam responsáveis pelo gerenciamento do esgotamento sanitário na maioria das localidades. O que levou a esse quadro? Quais aspectos estão relacionados ao processo de tomada de decisão na opção pelo modelo de prestação de serviços? Por que municípios optam por modelos diferentes, não se observando um padrão de prestação de serviços para o Brasil? Tendo em vista que os modelos institucionais adotados em diferentes momentos podem ajudar a explicar o desempenho passado do setor e sugerir futuras direções, este trabalho pretende contribuir para essa discussão, expondo o contexto histórico da ocorrência de diferentes modelos de gestão de abastecimento de água e esgotamento sanitário e identificando os fatores que condicionaram essa presença. Dessa forma, utilizando-se metodologias qualitativas de pesquisa e uma técnica quali-quantitativa inovadora no Brasil a Análise Qualitativa Comparativa (QCA) promoveu-se neste estudo uma análise comparativa dos fatores condicionantes da presença de quatro diferentes modelos de prestação de serviços de abastecimento de água e esgotamento sanitário: administração direta municipal, administração indireta municipal, companhia estadual de saneamento básico e empresa privada. Para tal, foram selecionados como casos de estudo oito municípios do estado de Minas Gerais, sendo dois representantes de cada modelo de gestão. Os resultados sugerem que fatores econômicos (falta de recursos municipais para investimentos e possibilidade de acesso aos recursos externos), fatores políticos (influência do gestor público na tomada de decisão, necessidade de contatos políticos, ideologia político-partidária), fatores sociais (insatisfação com o serviço prestado, resistência ao pagamento da tarifa e ausência de participação popular), fatores institucionais (know-how, qualidade dos serviços prestados, distância entre o prestador e o usuário, a tarifa praticada pelo prestador e autonomia financeira e administrativa) e fatores legais (questões contratuais e exigências legislativas) exercem ou exerceram forte influência na adoção e manutenção dos modelos de prestação de serviços de abastecimento de água e esgotamento sanitário.

O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar o comportamento de genótipos do Programa de Melhoramento Genético de Mamoeiro da Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura, submetidos a diferentes classes texturais de solo, lâminas d´água e em combinações de copa e portaenxerto quanto à resistência a Phytophthora palmivora. O trabalho foi realizado em duas etapas, sendo inicialmente avaliados cinco genótipos (L06-08, L72-08, L47-P5, L47-P8 e Calimosa), três classes texturais de solo (argiloso, franco argilo arenoso e franco arenoso), e duas lâminas d?água (100% e 60% da capacidade de campo).

La obtención de bebidas en polvoa partir de cassis e infusiones de yerba mate por liofilización, permite ampliarsu consumo y aplicabilidad. Sin embargo la elevada higroscopicidad de estos productos a altas temperaturas y humedades relativas dificulta su comercialización. Las propiedades de sorción son de gran importancia para predecir la estabilidad fisicoquímica, estimar la vida útil y la aceptabilidad de productos deshidratados. En este trabajo se compararon las isotermas de adsorción a 10 °C, 20 °C y 40 °C para un rango de actividad acuosa (a_w) entre 0.11 y 0.54 de una bebida en polvo a base de yerba mate y cassis con maltodextrina DE₁₀ como coadyuvante de la liofilización mediante el método gravimétrico estático. Las isotermas obtenidas presentaron una forma sigmoidal característica del tipo II. Se observó un aumento de la humedad de equilibrio (W_c) con el incremento de a_w a temperatura constante, mientras que para una a_w, dada el incremento de la temperatura disminuyó W_c, mostrando un descenso en la higroscopicidad del polvo. Los datos experimentales se modelaron usando ecuaciones de 2 (Oswin, Halsey y BET) y 3 parámetros (GAB). El ajuste de cada modelo fue bueno (porcentaje de error medio relativo (%E) <6). El modelo que mejor ajustó fue Halsey (2.30 %E (10 °C), 3.59 % (20 °C) y 2.93 % (40 °C)) seguido de Oswin (2.77, 2.40 y 4.01 %) y GAB (3.91, 4.71 y 2.68 %E), en base a esta ecuación se encontró que los valores de humedad de la monocapa (W_m) disminuyeron con el aumento de la temperatura (0.063, 0.061 y 0.050 kg de agua/kg m.s para 10, 20 y 40 °C respectivamente). La ecuación de BET presento un ajuste menor con E% mayor para todos los casos. Los polvos almacenados a a_w<0.33 se mantuvieron fluidos a las tres temperaturas mientras que para a_w=0.423 y 40 °C se observó el colapso de la muestra. | Facultad de Ciencias Exactas

El siguiente TFG consiste en la mejora del procesado del café mediante la dotación de una pequeña infraestructura. Esta mejora en el proceso productivo supone una reducción de la contaminación de las aguas lo cual favorece la consecución del derecho humano al agua en la zona.

Seventy percent of the Planet Earth´surface is covered by water. However, only 2.5% is fresh water, the remaining 97.5% is salt water in oceans and seas. From 2.5% of freshwater, only 0.3% is available in rivers, lakes and reservoirs, 30% is located in underground aquifers and the rest is frozen in the poles and glaciers. It is clear that only a very small portion of the water of the Earth is currently available to meet the needs of mankind: drinking water, agriculture and industry. It is estimated that worldwide there are around 1,500 million hectares of farmland, of which 277 million are irrigated lands. Of the total freshwater delivered to different uses, irrigation is the main user of the planet: approximately 70% of the total freshwater is used to irrigate crops (Molden et al 2010; Kassam et al 2007). It is estimated that by year 2050 the Earth will be inhabited by 9,000 million people, which will demand more and better food. It is important to know that such a scenario must be addressed with a similar amount of arable land and fresh water. The agricultural sector should be able to provide the necessary answers, for example by making more efficient use of water and increasing their productivity. The concepts of "efficiency" and "productivity" of the water have been widely studied by the scientific and academic community. Both have different approaches, according to the scale of study, its objectives and the actors involved, which determines the framework to use. To characterize the use of water in irrigation systems is required to understand the characteristics of the cultures involved, identify the factors that restrict the efficient use of water, determine the prevailing farmers´ irrigation practices, and then be able to explore strategies of management within each particular technological, economic and social framework. One of the approaches to assess the water use and productivity in agriculture is based on the use of simulation models, whose main function is to estimate the production of crops according to climate, soil, and technological management. The model AquaCrop (Steduto et al 2009) focuses on the crops response to water availability. In the Río Dulce Irrigation System (SRRD), located in the province of Santiago del Estero, Argentina, crop production is lower than attainable. The low irrigation frequency and standard farmer´ practices expose crops to periods of water shortage, which have negative impact on yields, and also limit the efficient use of water. This thesis is aimed to characterize the use of irrigation water in maize and cotton crops and to analyze irrigation strategies allowing increasing crops production and improving water use in the SRRD. For that purspose, the following specific objectives have been raised: to calibrate and validate the AquaCrop model for maize and cotton crops; to evaluate the yields and water productivity gaps in those crops, and quantify the benefits of changing the system of fixed shifts to one more flexible. Calibration and validation of maize in the agro-ecological conditions of Santiago del Estero is dealt with in Chapter 2. To do this, experiments set at INTA between 2007 and 2012 were used. Their objectives were to determine the response of maize to various planting dates and deficit irrigation treatments. The model precisely simulated maize behavior. Statistical indicators gave a degree of adjustment that can be described as very good; by way of example, in yields, values were as follows: coefficient of determination (R2)=0,985; Willmott index (d) =0,995; Mean absolute error (MAE)=0, 259; Root of the mean square error (RMSE)=0, 361 and average normalized quadratic error (NRMSE) root=3,6. To close this chapter, a meta-analysis of AquaCrop ability to simulate the behavior of the corn in a wide range of climate, soil, genetic materials and agronomic management conditions was made, analyzing the existing literature. It showed the good response of the model in twelve places. The good behavior of the model in Santiago del Estero, Argentina, having different climate characteristics to the place where the x crop parameters were defined (Davis, California, USA), strengthens the viability of AquaCrop to simulate the production of maize. Calibration and validation of cotton is treated in Chapter 3. To this purpose, experiments set at INTA between 2007 and 2013 were used. Their objectives were to determine the cotton response to deficit irrigation treatments and to different soil water contents (without stress conditions). AquaCrop simulated very well the behavior of cotton. The values of the statistical indicators were: R2=0.940; d=0.974; MAE=0,317; RMSE=0,413 and NRMSE=10.1. The varieties used in the experiments are very different to those used in original crop parameterization, so some conservative parameters were changed, among others: canopy growth coefficient, time to maximum canopy cover, time to flowering and harvest index. It should be noted that the maximum yields observed in experiments and appropriately simulated by AquaCrop, quite exceed yields on which is based the original calibration. Finally, it is necessary to highlight the great adaptation of the model to different agronomic conditions (distance between lines, plant density and intensive use of growth regulators) with respect to which were used for their original parameterization. It is emphasized the simplicity of AquaCrop and its capacity of adaptation to different climates and agronomic management. The model can be used in several applications: yield estimation, analysis of production risks by impact of droughts, definition of irrigation strategies at farm level to improve water use and as a tool in assessing irrigation performance. This thesis is the first approach to assess, at system level, yield and water productivity gaps in the Río Dulce Irrigation System (SRRD), located in Santiago del Estero, Argentina. This is done in chapter 4 and the specific objectives were: characterize variations in maize and cotton water use in the San Martín District (SRRD); determine the gaps in yield and water productivity in those crops; assess the benefits of changing the actual irrigation rotational system to a more flexible water delivery, and evaluate how irrigation scheduling impact on water use. To achieve these objectives, AquaGIS (Lorite et al 2013) was used. AquaGIS is an interface that overcomes the current limitations of AquaCROP when it is necessary to do many simulations over large areas and for a large number of years. The use of AguaGIS was complemented with field surveys and questionnaires, to adjust the information of the current productive situation. Various scenarios have been set, whit the following factors: climate (series 1988-2013), soil (four), crop (maize and cotton), production levels (potential, water limited and actual), and planting date (two for each crop). The combination of variables resulted in 624 simulations per crop. Production levels were associated to irrigation strategies: potential production/on demand irrigation; water limited production/improved irrigation scheduling within the present rotational system; actual production/current farmers` irrigation management. For maize, the gap between potential and actual yield is estimated at 5900 kg ha-1 and the gap between potential yield and achievable (limited by the irrigation rotational system) yield was estimated at 1100 kg ha-1. Current water productivity (WP) is 17 kg ha-1.mm-1, considered low considering the potential of hybrids currently used. The WP in potential production is 25 kg ha-1.mm-1 and in water limited production, 23 kg ha-1.mm-1. The current irrigation water productivity (IWP) is very low, 4.5 kg ha-1.mmIW -1. The IWP in potential production is 27 kg ha-1.mmIW -1 and in water limited production 16 kg ha-1.mmIW -1. Simple changes in farmers` irrigation practices would lead to significant increases in maize WP and IWP, even within the constraints imposed by the present rotational irrigation system. In cotton, the gap between potential and actual yield is estimated at 2000 kg ha-1 and between potential... | La Tierra recibe, entre otros, el apelativo de "Planeta Azul" debido a que el 70% de su superficie está cubierta por agua. Sin embargo, sólo el 2.5% es agua dulce, el 97.5% restante son mares y océanos de agua salada. Del 2.5% de agua dulce, sólo el 0.3% está disponible en ríos, lagos y embalses, el 30% se encuentra en acuíferos subterráneos y el resto está congelada en los casquetes polares y glaciares. Resulta claro que sólo una muy pequeña porción del agua de la Tierra está actualmente disponible para cubrir las necesidades de la humanidad: agua potable, agricultura e industria. Se estima que en el mundo hay alrededor de 1,500 millones de hectáreas de tierras de cultivo, de las cuales 277 millones disponen de riego. Del total del agua dulce derivada para los distintos usos, el riego es el principal usuario del planeta, con aproximadamente el 70% del total se usa para el riego de los cultivos (Molden et al. 2010; Kassam et al 2007; FAO 2012). Se calcula que en el año 2050 el planeta Tierra estará habitado por 9,000 millones de seres humanos, que demandarán más y mejores alimentos. Se estima que los pilares permitirán hacer frente a tal desafío serán las técnicas agronómicas, la biotecnología y el manejo juicioso de los recursos naturales. Un aspecto clave a considerar es que la disponibilidad de tierras cultivables y agua será similar que en el siglo pasado. El sector agrícola deberá ser capaz de dar las respuestas necesarias, por ejemplo haciendo un uso más eficiente del agua e incrementando su productividad. Los conceptos de “uso eficiente” y “productividad” del agua han sido y son ampliamente estudiados por la comunidad científica y académica ligadas al uso del agua en la agricultura. Ambos tienen matices según la escala de estudio, sus objetivos y los actores involucrados, lo que determina el marco a utilizar. Para caracterizar el uso del agua en los sistemas de riego se requiere conocer las características de los cultivos involucrados, identificar los factores que restringen el uso eficiente del agua, determinar los hábitos predominantes de riego de los agricultores, para luego poder explorar estrategias de manejo en cada marco tecnológico, económico y social particular. Uno de los enfoques para evaluar el uso y la productividad del agua en la agricultura se basa en el uso de modelos de simulación, cuya función principal es estimar la producción de los cultivos en función del clima, el suelo y el manejo tecnológico. El modelo AquaCrop (Steduto et al 2009) se centra en la respuesta de los cultivos a la disponibilidad de agua. En el Sistema de Riego del Río Dulce-Los Quiroga, ubicado en la provincia de Santiago del Estero, Argentina, la producción de los cultivos es bastante menor que la que podría obtenerse. La baja frecuencia del turno de riego y las prácticas habituales de manejo exponen a los cultivos a períodos de déficit hídrico, que tienen impacto negativo en los rendimientos y, asimismo, limitan el uso eficiente del agua. La presente tesis tiene como finalidad, para el Sistema de Riego del Río Dulce-Los Quiroga, Santiago del Estero, Argentina, caracterizar el uso del agua de riego en los cultivos de maíz y algodón y analizar estrategias de riego que permitan aumentar su producción, mejorando el uso del agua. Para ello, se plantearon los siguientes objetivos específicos: calibrar y validar el modelo de simulación AquaCrop para los cultivos de maíz y algodón, evaluar la brecha de rendimientos en esos dos cultivos a nivel de productor y cuantificar los beneficios productivos de cambiar el sistema de turno fijo a uno más flexible, que permita acoplar el riego con las necesidades de agua de los cultivos. La calibración y validación del maíz para las condiciones agroecológicas de Santiago del Estero se aborda en el Capítulo 2. Para ello, se utilizaron experimentos realizados en INTA entre los años 2007 y 2012, que tuvieron como objetivos determinar la respuesta de híbridos de maíz a distintas fechas de siembra y a tratamientos de riego deficitario. El modelo simuló...

A adaptação climática de qualquer espécie vegetal tem estreita relação com seu padrão fenológico, influenciando na sua distribuição geográfica e sua flutuação nos ecossistemas. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar o comportamento de 33 híbridos (26 híbridos simples, 6 híbridos triplos e um híbrido duplo) geneticamente modificados de milho em situações climáticas contrastantes - épocas de semeadura (ES), sob irrigação.

Freshwater crab, Sodhiana iranica, is an endemic gecarcinucid crab that has been recently reported from Southern Iran. This research examined some reproductive aspects of S. iranica from Eelood freshwater spring, Southern Iran. Crabs were haphazardly sampled from April 2012 to April 2013, on a bimonthly basis. Measurements of Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI), Hepato-Somatic Index (HSI), oocyte diameter, and other aspects such as carapace width (CW) and total body weight (TW) were made in the captured specimens. Results showed a single seasonal reproductive cycle. Maturation and spawning occurred from December 2012 to April 2013 during the study period. The peaks of HSI were observed in April 2012 and February 2013. The oocyte diameter showed its most significant increase between August 2012 and February 2013. Considering the single seasonal breeding of S. iranica, a correct management, during the reproductive cycle, is necessary to support a healthy stock of this crab. | El cangrejo agua dulce Sodhiana iranica es un cangrejo gecarcinucido que ha sido recientemente encontrado en el sur de Irán. Este trabajo examina algunos aspectos de la reproducción del cangrejo de agua dulce S. Iranica en el manantial Eelood del sur de Irán. Los cangrejos se muestrearon al azar entre abril 2012 y abril 2013 cada dos meses. Las mediciones del índice gonadosomático, el hepatosomático (HSI), el diámetro de los ovocitos y las observaciones de las etapas de maduración de los especímenes capturados, revelaron un único ciclo reproductivo estacional. La maduración y el desove se produjeron entre Diciembre 2012 y Abril 2013. El pico del índice hepatosomático se observó en Abril 2012 y Febrero 2013, respectivamente, y resultó más significativo el incremento en la media del diámetro de los ovocitos, que se produjo entre Agosto 2012 y Febrero 2013. En este estudio, se encontró que S. iranica se reproduce una vez al año estacionalmente. Por lo anterior, la gestión correcta durante el ciclo reproductivo de esta especie es necesaria para mantener la naturaleza y salud del stock de cangrejo.

La evaluación del uso de suelo y su influencia actual en la calidad del agua de la microcuenca “El Sapanal”, ubicada en el cantón Pangua, Provincia de Cotopaxi, Ecuador, permitió la recopilación de información biofísica y socioeconómica, lo que determinó las potencialidades y vulnerabilidad del lugar, desde una perspectiva técnica y con base a los planteamientos de los actores locales. El índice Biological Monitoring Working Party modificado para Costa Rica (BMWP-Cr), mostró que el uso de suelo del bosque posee aguas de calidad excelente, a diferencia del uso de suelo agrícola y pastizal con aguas de calidad regular. Esto, demuestra que la reducción de la franja ribereña contribuye a la degradación del hábitat interior y de la calidad del agua. Por ello, los lineamientos de manejo propuestos son herramientas para realizar acciones y tomar decisiones encaminadas a: i. recuperar áreas de valor medioambiental, ii. mejorar la vida de los habitantes, y iv. garantizar la calidad y la cantidad del agua. | The assessment of land use and its current influence on the water quality of the watershed "The Sapanal" located in the canton Pangua, Cotopaxi Province, Ecuador, allowed the collection of biophysical and socio-economic information, which determined the potential and vulnerability, from a technical perspective and based on the proposals of local actors. The Biological Monitoring Working Party modified index for Costa Rica (BMWP-Cr) showed that the use of forest floor has water of excellent quality, unlike the use of agricultural land and pasture with water of medium quality. This shows that reducing coastal strip contributes to the degradation of the inner habitat and water quality. Because of that, the proposed management guidelines are tools to do actions and take decisions in order to: i. recover areas of environmental value, ii. improve the lives of people, and iv. guarantee both quality and quantity of water. | Magister Scientiae en Manejo Integral de Cuencas Hidrográficas | Universidad Nacional de La Plata | Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales