The ubiquitous spread of digital networks has created techniques which can organize, store, and analyse large data volumes in an automizedand self-administered manner in real time. These technologies will have profound impacts on policy, administration, economy, trade, society,and science. This article sketches how three digital data technologies, namely the blockchain, data mining, and artificial intelligence could impact commercial fisheries including producers, wholesalers, retailers, consumers, management authorities, and scientist. Each of these three technologies is currently experiencing an enormous boost in technological development and real-world implementation and is predicted to increasingly affect many aspects of fisheries and seafood trade. As any economic sector acting on global scales, fishing and seafood production are often challenged with a lack of trust along various steps of the production process and supply chain. Consumers are often not well informed on the origin and production methods of their product, management authorities can only partly control fishing and trading activities and producers can be challenged by low market prices and competition with peers. The emerging data technologies can improve the trust among agents within the fisheries sector by increasing transparency and availability of information from net to plate.

Modern trends and factors influencing fisheries industry (FI) of the EU are analyzed. The EU positions in global production, consumption, export and import of fish and seafood with reference to fishing and aquaculture in marine and freshwater environments are identified. The dynamics of the EU FI development, including the resource and infrastructure provision are demonstrated. Current and long term fundamentals of the EU's Common Fisheries Policy are revealed. The level and structure of state support of the FI in some EU countries are analyzed. A possible influence of a complex of external factors on the prospective development of the FI of the EU countries is shown. The general consequences for the EU fishing sector as a result of Brexit, pollution and acidification of the world's oceans, changes in the world crude oil prices, and pandemic development of COVID 19 are considered. It has been concluded that the FI in the nearest future will remain an important segment of social and economic development. Most areas of the Common Fisheries Policy of the EU countries are also relevant for Russia: computerization and automation; emphasis on the protection and reproduction of aquatic biological resources, stabilization of the fishing fleet's capacity and the increasing role of aquaculture; ensuring transparency and informative value chain; comprehensive international cooperation; support for small and medium-sized businesses in the FI, fishing communities; modernization of production and logistics infrastructures. | Анализируются современные тенденции и факторы, оказывающие влияние на рыбохозяйственный комплекс (РХК) Европейского Союза (ЕС). Определено место ЕС в мировом производстве, потреблении, экспорте и импорте рыбы и морепродуктов (с учетом рыболовства и аквакультуры в морской и пресноводной средах). Показана динамика развития РХК стран ЕС с учетом ресурсного и инфраструктурного обеспечения. Раскрыты основные положения Общей рыболовной политики стран ЕС в настоящее время и на долгосрочную перспективу. Проанализированы уровень и структура государственной поддержки РХК в ряде стран ЕС. Показано возможное влияние комплекса внешних факторов на перспективное развитие РХК стран ЕС. Рассматриваются общие последствия для рыбной отрасли ЕС в результате выхода Великобритании из ЕС, загрязнения и закисления мирового океанa,измененияцен на сырую нефть и развития пандемии коронавируса. Сделан вывод, что РХК в обозримом будущем будет оставаться важным сегментом социально-экономического развития. Большинство направлений Общей рыболовной политики стран ЕС актуальны и для России: компьютеризация и автоматизация; акцент на охрану и воспроизводство водных биологических ресурсов, стабилизацию мощности рыболовного флота и увеличение роли аквакультуры; обеспечение прозрачности и информативности производственно-сбытовой цепочки; комплексное международное сотрудничество; поддержка малого и среднего бизнеса в РХК, рыболовных общин; модернизация производственной и логистической инфраструктур.

The aim of this report is to present evidence for how information and communication technologies for small-scale fisheries (ICT4SSF) might enable and support the implementation of the Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF Guidelines). We present case studies of ICT4SSF initiatives in different use areas to identify key themes and reflect on successes and failures. This document begins with a review of documented ICT4SSF initiatives, in Chapter 1, and to what extent they interact with the key elements of Part 2 of the SSF Guidelines. The following six case studies then dive into specific examples from around the world to detail their individual development processes and to evaluate the successes, failures and key lessons. Chapter 2 describes the development of a near real-time digital monitoring system for small-scale fisheries in Timor-Leste. Chapter 3 reviews formal and informal use of ICTs and capacity development in South India. Chapter 4 summarizes lessons of how mobile technology in value chains can drive gender equity in the Philippines. Chapter 5 describes the successes and failures of a digital market information service in East Africa. Chapter 6 explores the mechanisms through which fishers can engage with ICTs in the Caribbean toward improved safety at sea. Chapter 7 presents how digital technology and mobile money can enable alternative livelihoods for fishers in remote Bangladesh. In the Discussion and conclusions section, findings from the case studies are mapped back to Part 3 of the SSF Guidelines to provide a more systematic summary of the opportunities, risks and gaps in how information and communication technologies (ICTs) can enable the implementation of the SSF Guidelines. The guiding principles of the SSF Guidelines are based on international standards of human rights, as well as responsible fisheries and sustainable development practices, with particular attention to vulnerable and marginalized groups. Globally, the most vulnerable and marginalized people tend to be the least represented in digital data because even simple social networks require some level of literacy and a smartphone, which in turn relies on connectivity and power. These prerequisites exclude certain segments of the population in developing countries such as small-scale fishers and fish workers, who often operate in isolated and informal markets where infrastructure is weak. ICTs are often seen as a way for developing countries, including vulnerable and marginalized groups, to hurdle traditional development processes in order to access the new digital economy. However, the investments and policies required to bridge the digital divide (inequalities in access to digital information and services and their associated benefits) are similar to traditional development processes, such as improving education and infrastructure. There are few baselines against which to compare fisher well-being and access before and after ICT initiatives, and this gap is an important finding in this report. So far, success has only been assessed qualitatively and relatively, in terms of uptake, sustainability and local legitimacy. Still, some ICT4SSF initiatives presented in this document are closely aligned with the Principles for Digital Development and the objectives of the SSF Guidelines. These initiatives highlighted that when ICTs are locally led or developed, or co-designed with end users and marginalized groups, or have strengthened already existing networks and technologies, the potential for positive impact is much higher. However, there is much less evidence of proactive confrontation of inequality through data ownership. Furthermore, there are few examples of developing mechanisms for fishers and fish workers to hold, access or own their data, and few legal mechanisms to recognize their ownership or protect them against misuse or manipulation. XVI There is little doubt that ICTs hold potential to improve the lives of small-scale fisheries actors. But to bridge the digital divide, ICT4SSF development must be ethical and transparent and be orientated specifically to meeting the needs of the poor and marginalized. For example, in fisheries monitoring systems, co-generated and co-owned data foster transparency and accountability, and they enable small-scale fisheries actors to have an active role in decisions in resource governance. However, given the varying accessibility to information between sexes, individuals, groups, communities or businesses, ICT development must be mindful of how to add value for small-scale fisheries actors. If not, they could merely be contributing to widening the divide between rich and poor or the powerful and the exploited. From our review, ICT4SSF to date have most commonly been applied in a traditional top-down approach to resource governance (Chapter 2), to monitor who is fishing and when, where and how much they catch. Thus far, ICT4SSF initiatives have followed the tendency for fisheries monitoring (1) to be extractive, with few mechanisms in place for information to flow both ways, (2) to be co-generated, and (3) to have few regulations in place to protect individuals’ data privacy. There is great potential for digital technologies to enable transparent and equitable information systems that pave the way for responsible governance of tenure. For example to “establish networks and platforms for the exchange of experiences and information and to facilitate their involvement in policy- and decision-making processes relevant to small-scale fishing communities” (SSF Guidelines 10.6), these systems should include gender-disaggregated “bioecological, social, cultural and economic data relevant for decision-making on sustainable management of small-scale fisheries” (SSF Guidelines 11.1). There are few examples available of ICT4SSF initiatives that directly target gender equality outcomes, poverty reduction, fisher welfare and equal rights, but these can be meaningfully addressed if ICT development is strategically planned and best practices are followed (Chapter 4). Also, the factors that underpin uptake and sustainability of ICT4SSF initiatives, such as trust, legitimacy, digital literacy and privacy, remain largely unexplored. Without insight into these aspects, stakeholders planning to use ICT4SSF in their activities are vulnerable to unintended and unfavorable outcomes. There is an urgent need to support ICT development with policies that ensure equitable accessibility and distribution of the benefits of digital inclusion. The SSF Guidelines are for all stakeholders in aquatic systems, from governments and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to fishers and fishworkers (SSF Guidelines 2.3). Initial successes of contextualizing “first world” technology into developing world settings have relied on partnerships. Fostering collaboration between data scientists, governments, NGOs and smallscale fisheries actors is more likely to ensure that ICTs are appropriate for the key hardships and constraints unique to each local context (Chapter 2). Unfortunately, many countries view fisheries data as extremely sensitive and are reluctant to trust nongovernment partners with access, even if they lack internal expertise to fully use the data to inform decision-making. ICTs have shown a great deal of promise in raising awareness and building capacity to drive social behavior change (Box 12). But there is little published evidence of formal investment into innovation or application in this area of small-scale fisheries. This is true for the promotion of the SSF Guidelines themselves with small-scale fisheries actors (SSF Guidelines 13.3), or in terms of recognizing specific knowledge and roles of women in small-scale fisheries (SSF Guidelines 11.6). It is also true of the nutritional benefits of eating fish (SSF Guidelines 11.11) or recording and sharing traditional knowledge and cultural practices (SSF Guidelines 11.7). Evidence from case studies suggests that information exchange between small-scale fisheries actors often emerges organically through social networking, and that building on these existing platforms and capacities could be a way of leapfrogging learning and trust issues associated with new ICTs (Chapter 3). Working with local partners and the small-scale fisheries actors themselves to build from local knowledge, capacity and platforms is the greatest opportunity to leverage and scale technologies to achieve the objectives of the SSF Guidelines.

Doctoral Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg. | Smallholder irrigation schemes (SIS) are pivotal in sustaining livelihoods and creating employment in rural communities of South Africa. The South African govern ment has made efforts to rehabilitate and revitalize such schemes; however, current realities of poor scheme performance, low farmer participation and dilapidated infrastructure raise questions about providing the irrigation improvements. SIS beneficiaries are usually low-income farmers faced with various production constraints, whose success rests on the schemes’ institutional environments. The government adopted the Irrigation Management Transfer to foster collective responsibility and rule compliance and to improve the performance and to decentralize the management of SIS. However, in many cases, the lack of awareness of formal institutions and stakeholder involvement hinders the effective management of the schemes. Given the shortcomings of the SIS, this study evaluates institutional integration, farmer participation and SIS’ water-user performance. The study's specific objectives were to assess the institutional integration in the SIS governance in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, South Africa; to assess the determinants of the household-level perceptions of scheme governance; to evaluate the determinants of farmer’s participation in the management of SIS and lastly; to estimate water-use performance in SIS The study adopted qualitative and quantitative techniques to address the objectives. Data were collected from 341 households across four SIS in KZN. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were held to obtain more information on scheme governance. The chosen schemes have different features such as institutional arrangements, farmer composition, and production challenges, and are representative of the average SIS in South Africa. The study evaluated the horizontal and vertical institutional integration of water governance in SIS Stakeholder interactions in the schemes were assessed through Exploratory Social Network Analysis to identify, categorize, and investigate stakeholder challenges. The Management Transition Framework, an interdisciplinary framework for evaluating water systems, management processes and multi-level governance regimes, was adopted to analyse institutional integration. Considering that good governance is a prerequisite for the effective management of common-use resources, the determinants of perceptions of governance were evaluated using the multiple regression model. Principal Components Analysis, Structural Equation Modelling, and multiple regression were used to generate participation in management indices, evaluate the relationship between management constructs and evaluate the determinants of water-users’ participation in SIS management, respectively. Furthermore, the study assessed the performance of water-users across the four SIS, given their different institutional arrangements. Technical Efficiency was used as a proxy for water-user performance and was measured using Cobb-Douglas and Trans-log production functions. A Stochastic Meta-Frontier Analysis (SMFA) method was employed to measure the overall efficiency of water-users across schemes and determine technical gap ratios. In assessing institutional integration in SIS governance, the study found that information asymmetries hindered horizontal integration. Simultaneously, the fiscal and capacity challenges, low accountability, and transparency amongst stakeholders led to the lack of vertical integration. The results indicate a lack of integration in SIS governance. Empirical results show that farmers that are satisfied with the informal institutions, being the rules and norms set locally to govern the scheme farmers, value the involvement of the traditional authorities in scheme management, including their contribution in rule enforcement. Age, agricultural training, water adequacy, participation in scheme activities, psychological capital and land tenure have a positive effect on perceptions of governance. The study found that irrigators who participated in the regulation and control of SIS also participate in information sharing activities. Furthermore, participation in SIS management is composed of four management constructs that have different determinants. The study found that governance perceptions, land tenure security, credit access, and co-operative membership are determinants of participation in the management of SIS. In evaluating water-user performance, the SMFA results yielded an overall average meta-efficiency of 0.85, which is relatively high. The efficiency model results showed that perceptions of governance, farmer psychological capital, land tenure security, credit access, co-operative membership, and gender significantly affect water-users’ performance. The study recommended the need for stakeholders to understand existing institutions and their roles, i.e., The Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Department of Water and Sanitation, extension officers. Synergies and improved coordination among institutions are prerequisites for effective governance. Additionally, transparency and accountability should be improved to attain vertical integration. Awareness of formal institutions and stakeholder involvement should be encouraged to foster farmer participation in SIS management. Improved stakeholder engagement and inclusion of informal institutions in policy formulation can achieve integration and better water management in the schemes. Farmers should receive and participate in agricultural and irrigation training to increase their participation in irrigation scheme management, which can foster the sustainable use of water. Interventions should strengthen institutions and focus on the empowerment of farmers through relevant training, land tenure security, and credit access. Furthermore, improved water supply adequacy and its availability for use in the schemes should enhance its productivity.