Contém um relatório de estágio realizado na Unidade de Farmacologia Clínica do Instituto de Farmacologia e Terapêutica da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto e na Unidade de Endocrinologia do Serviço de Medicina IV do Hospital São João, Porto, no âmbito da licenciatura em Ciências da Nutrição pela Faculdade de Ciências da Nutrição e Alimentação da Universidade do Porto | Tese de licenciatura em Ciências da Nutrição apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências da Nutrição e Alimentação da Universidade do Porto | Resumo da tese: O envelhecimento da população mundial, sobretudo nos países ocidentais, é um fenómeno do qual Portugal não é excepção. O envelhecimento da população está associado ao acréscimo na prevalência de doenças crónicas, o que implica um maior número de idosos necessitados de cuidados de saúde com o consequente aumento no consumo de medicamentos. Dietas e fármacos são utilizados simultaneamente no controlo de doenças crónicas, assim como no alívio da sintomatologia associada a situações de doença aguda e/ou crónica. As múltiplas patologias de que o indivíduo idoso pode sofrer aumentam de forma dramática a complexidade das atitudes terapêuticas a tomar, o que se traduz num maior risco de reacções entre fármacos, assim como entre fármacos e nutrientes. Interacções farmacológicas que implicam efeitos primários ou secundários no estado nutricional são uma causa importante de internamento de indivíduos idosos (note-se que de 3a10% das admissões hospitalares dos idosos estão associadas a interacções medicamentosas), sobrecarregando de forma notável os já elevados custos de saúde (1). É de salientar que a polipragmasia e as interacções entre fármacos que esta condiciona, são importantes factores preditívos de altas taxas de mortalidade entre os idosos hospitalizados. Como a prevenção destas situações é possível, os riscos de interacção devem ser definidos, assim como devem ser instituídas medidas de intervenção (2). A publicação da observação de reacções adversas a certas combinações de fármacos em doentes idosos, é fundamental para evitar que no futuro se volte a prescrever o mesmo grupo de fármacos simultaneamente. O processo de envelhecimento, as múltiplas patologias e os maus hábitos de saúde (por ex: alcoolismo) combinam-se de forma a aumentar o risco de reacções adversas com fármacos no indivíduo idoso (3).

The broad aim of this dissertation is to examine Government renewable and wind energy policy, and then to analyse the planning controls which guide development.The specific objective of chapter 1 is to demonstrate that the Government's target for renewable and wind generated electricity output is unsatisfactory, in the light of UK electricity demand, environmental and health risks resulting from the use of fossil and nuclear fuels, ineffective abatement of fossil fuel emissions, the UK wind resource, policies adopted by other countries, and issues of climate change and sustainable development. The question of financial support for wind energy expansion is also considered. Sources for Chapter 1 include Government policy documents, DTI and other publications, Energy Papers, and Parliamentary Committee Reports. The argument set out in Chapter 2 is that although wind power offers overwhelming advantages at the national and global level, its local drawbacks are serious enough to justify the use of compulsory environmental assessment. The various adverse effects are described (visual impact, land use, shadow disturbance, wildlife and habitat disruption, electromagnetic interference, safety and noise), with reference to legislation, Department of the Environment, DTI and other publications, Government planning guidance, and Parliamentary Committee findings. Finally, Chapter 3 looks at planning controls in practice. This covers development plans (Part 1), decisions taken on planning applications (Part 2), noise and the use of PPG 22 and 24 (Part 3), planning conditions (Part 4), and section 106 obligations (Part 5). Chapter 3 is based on DTI and other publications, Government planning guidance, court cases, Parliamentary Committee findings, and correspondence with local authorities (Lancashire and Northumberland County Councils, Kirklees Metropolitan Council, and at district level, North Cornwall, Burnley, Derwentside, Adur, Radnorshire, Copeland, Torridge, Montgomeryshire and Carrick).

The increase in public concern for the environment has been reflected in recent legislative changes, such as the implementation of provisions of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and more recently with the introduction of the Environment Act 1995, which includes provision for the fomiation of the Environment Agency predominantly from the National Rivers Authority, Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution and Local Government waste regulation authorities. The Agency, once formed, will be the largest single body regulating the environment in Europe and appears as such to hold the hopes of environmental pressure groups and the public in terms of its ability to improve the quality of the environment. The Government has gone about providing the Agency with support in achieving sound environmental protection by providing it with powers to prevent pollution and requiring it to perform duties, such as enforcing the conditions of the authorisations and licences it issues and monitoring its performance. The Government has also given the Agency principal aims and objectives and one of them is to work towards achieving sustainable development. The appropriate carrying out of its duties and working towards this goal will be fundamental task for Agency managers and good policy will be required to provide them with the tools to perform well. This dissertation aims to determine the most appropriate strategy for the Agency's policy makers to consider using in enforcing pollution control legislation and carrying out its duties in order to work towards achieving sustainable development. The research looks at how the Agency can decide what environmental indicators it should use so that progress towards sustainable development can be measured and how it can influence resource usage. It also aims to identi' how the Agency can provide charging incentives to polluting activities which afford better pollution abatement and more cost effective regulation. Finally, since the Agency's decision making processes need to be transparent, also included are suggested areas of policies on enforcement and examples of good regulatory practice currently in use by those regulatory bodies coming together to form the Agency.

This thesis examines participation by individuals and environmental groups in the present system of environmental law by focusing on water pollution law. The objectives are to ascertain whether the current law on water pollution as contained in the common law and statutory law adequately provides for public participation, whether the enforcement of water pollution legislation by the National Rivers Authority (NRA) is so effective as to make public participation unnecessary, and finally, whether them are practical limitations on public participation in terms of the availability and accessibility of expertise in environmental law. This thesis seeks to discuss the various avenues of public participation in water pollution law in the UK and the problems associated with them, as well as mentioning some proposals for reform which may provide for more effective participation by individuals and environmental groups. The common law of torts is examined as a means of protection of the water environment. A review of recent case law demonstrates the uncertain unpredictable nature of common law principles. Also, as only a limited range of persons with private rights can bring actions at common law, the present law of torts does not seem to be an adequate means of participation for individuals Or environmental groups. The development of statutory and administrative regulation of water pollution demonstrates that whilst the concern of legislators has been mainly to create substantive law which would prohibit water poHution and to create bodies which could effectively enforce the legislation, the Control of Pollution Act 1974 provided for a participatory role for the public. Since then they have been able to participate in the control of water pollution through the discharge consent system, have been able to bring private prosecutions against polluters, and obtain more easy access to environmental information through public registers on water pollution. It appears that at present the most unrestricted way in which individuals and environmental groups can participate in the enforcement of water pollution law is through private prosecutions as there is no need to establish private rights or standing. Public participation through private prosecutions has been facilitated by public registers on water poilution. As private prosecutions can play an important role in supplementing enforcement by public bodies such as the NRA or the proposed Environment Agency, individuals and environmental groups need to be made more aware of the possibility of bringing private prosecutions against polluters and of obtaining access to environmental information. Judicial review is another means for the public to participate in the enforcement of environmental legislation by ensuring that regulatory agencies are properly enforcing the legislation. Locus standi, however, still poses a hurdle especially to environmental groups with a general interest in environmental protection. Case law demonstrates that courts are recently taking a more liberal approach to the standing of environmental groups in judicial review cases. Even if judicial review cases do not result in a successful outcome for the environmental group, the recognition of standing by courts is still a victory as it emphasises the importance of enabling them to participate in the enforcement process and may trigger public bodies into properly carrying out their duties. The NRA's enforcement and prosecution policy is examined in order to assess whether there is a lack of effectiveness on its part in enforcing the legislation which could support the argument for greater public participation in the enforcement process. The NRA's prosecution policy and the low proportion of reported and substantiated pollution incidents actually prosecuted seem to indicate that the NRA does not carry out its role as effectively as could be hoped for. It appears, therefore, that the significance of a supplementary role for individuals and environmental groups should be recognised and given greater emphasis in future, and that the great reliance placed by the public upon a public body to control water pollution needs to change. An analysis is undertaken of the responses of questionnaires sent to and interviews conducted with solicitors in Preston. Manchester and London in order to ascertain the availability and accessibility of expertise in environmental law to individuals at a practical level. An assessment of the data collected leads the author to conclude that there appears to be a lack of legal practices wiffing and able to advise or take on environmental cases on behalf of ordinary citizens as opposed to commercial clients. The role played by the Environmental Law Foundation in making legal practices with expertise in environmental law more available to ordinary citizens and local residents groups is also discussed. Proposals for expertise in environmental law at a judicial level by the creation of an environmental court or tribunal which could encourage the public to pursue avenues of legal redress in relation to environmental cases is also examined.

Abstract: This paper studies the equilibrium determination of the number of political jurisdictions in different political regimes, democratic or not, and in different economic environments, with more or less economic integration. We focus on the trade off between the benefits of large jurisdictions in terms of economies of scale and the costs of heterogeneity of large and diverse populations. Our model implies that: i) democratization leads to secessions; ii) without an appropriate redistributive scheme (which we characterize) in equilibrium one observes an inefficiently large number of countries; iii) the equilibrium number of countries is increasing in the amount of economic integration. We also study the welfare effects of economic integration and free trade when the number of countries is endogenous.