A molecular analysis of L-arabinan degradation in Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus nidulans

This thesis describes a molecular study of the genetics ofL-arabinan degradation in Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus nidulans. These saprophytic hyphal fungi produce an extracellular hydrolytic enzyme system to depolymerize the plant cell wall polysaccharideL-arabinan. Chapter 1 surveys the occurrence, properties and applications ofL-arabinanolytic enzymes (arabinases). The A.niger system, which constitutes an endolytic endo-1,5-α-L-arabinase (ABN A) and two distinct α-L-arabinofuranosidases (ABF A and ABF B), has been a frequent subject of investigation in the past and represents the best characterizedL-arabinanolytic system to date. These three enzymes are all glycosylated. Current knowledge on the induction of fungal arabinase expression is summarized in this Chapter. Furthermore, the structure of the polysaccharide substrate and its function in the plant cell wall matrix are introduced.In Chapters 2 to 5, the cloning and characterization of the structural genes coding for the three glycosyl hydrolases from the A. nigerL-arabinan-degrading complex are described. A. niger abf A and abf B ar e the first eukaryotic ABF-encoding genes to be isolated and sequenced, abn A is the first ABN-encoding gene published. Chapter 2 reports on the isolation of the abf A gene encoding ABF A, the minor extracellular ABF. This gene could be cloned by utilizing ABF Aspecific cDNA as the probe. This cDNA was immunochemically identified from a cDNA library generated fromL-arabitol-induced myceliurn of an A. nigerD-xylulose kinase mutant. This mutant is unable to grow onL-arabitol and features enhanced expression of all three arabinases when transferred to medium containing this pentitol as sole carbon source. In Chapter 3 , the cloning of the ABN A-encoding gene (abn A) is described. This gene was isolated following the same strategy as with abf A, although a second cDNA library had to be generated first. The induction process was immunochemically monitored in order to establish the proper induction conditions for the new library. The abn A gene and the gene product were characterized by DNA sequence analyses of the cloned genomic DNA and the cDN A. The N-terminal amino acid sequences of ABN A and a CNBr-derived peptide were determined. Several transcription initiation sites and one polyadenylation site could be identified. The structural region codes for a protein of 321 amino acids and is interrupted by three introns. Extracellular ABN A consists of 302 amino acid residues with a deduced molecular weight of 32.5 kDa and a theoretical pl of 3.5. For the protein, an apparent pl of 3.0 and an apparent molecular weight of 43 kDa, determined upon SDS-PAGE, were previously reported. Chapter 4 documents the isolation and characterization of the abf B gene, coding for the major extracellular ABF. The determination of N-terminal amino acid sequences from ABF B and CNBr-generated peptides allowed the design of deoxyoligonucleotide mixtures which enabled the cloning of abf B. When utilized as primers in a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ABF B-specific amplification products emerged, one of which was used to probe the gene. The abf B gene and the gene product were characterized by DNA sequence analyses of the cloned genomic DNA and of ABF B- specific cDNA isolated from the library described in Chapter 3. Several transcription initiation sites and one polyadenylation site could be identified. The structural region is a single open reading frame and codes for a protein of 499 amino acids. The mature enzyme consists of 481 amino acid residues with a deduced molecular weight of 50.7 kDa and a theoretical pl of 3.8. An apparent pl of 3.5 and an apparent molecular weight of 67 kDa, determined upon SDS-PAGE, were previously reported. The abf B gene product was suggested to be identical to the ABF purified and characterized by Kaji and Tagawa (Biochim Biophys Acta 207 : 456-464 (1970)). Considering the non-amino acid content of the latter protein, a molecular weight of 64 kDa could be deduced for ABF B. In Chapter 5 , the abf A gene and its gene product were characterized by DNA sequence analyses of the genomic DNA and of the cDNA for which the isolation was described in Chapter 2. The N-terminal amino acid sequences of ABF A and a CNBr-derived peptide were determined. One transcription initiation site and two polyadenylation sites could be identified. The structural region is interrupted by seven introns and codes for a protein of 628 amino acids. Mature ABF A consists of 603 amino acid residues with a deduced molecular weight of 65.4 kDa and a theoretical pl of 3.7. For this ABF, an apparent pi of 3.3 and an apparent molecular weight of 83 kDa, determined upon SDS-PAGE, were previously documented.Although the three enzymes are all active against (1->5)-α-glycosidic bonds betweenL-arabinofuranosides, ABF A, ABF B and ABN A are genetically unrelated. ABF A was found to be N -glycosylated whereas ABF B and ABN A were not - these enzymes are only O -glycosylated. For each gene, arabinaseoverproducing strains were generated by introducing multiple gene copies in A.niger or in A.nidulans uridine auxotrophic strains through co-transformation. Transformants were isolated upon primary selection for uridine prototrophy. Subsequent overproduction of the genes introduced was demonstrated in these recombinant strains upon growth on sugar beet pulp, both immunochemically and by assaying enzyme activity. abf A was shown to be expressed in the heterologous host A.nidulans, despite the absence of an abf A gene equivalent in this organism. High-copy number A.niger abf B transformants featured impaired secretion of other extracellular proteins upon growth on sugar beet pulp. ABN A overproduction was found to be limited to approximately five times the wild-type level in A.niger abn A transformants, but not in A.nidulans transformants. Such a limitation was not observed in case of the ABFs.In Chapters 5 and 6, the regulation ofL-arabinan degradation is addressed. The structural genes seem to be regulated mainly at the transcriptional level. Additional copies of either A13F-encoding gene in A.niger were shown to result in a reduction, but not in total silencing of the expression of the wild-type ABN Aencoding gene upon induction with either sugar beet pulp orL-arabitol ( Chapter 5 ). The reduction of the expression level of abn A correlated with the abf gene dosage. The repression effected by extra abf B gene copies was more stringent and more persistent than that elicited by additional abf A copies. Although observed with both inducers, these phenomena were more outspoken and more persistent on sugar beet pulp. Similar, but more moderate effects were observed towards the expression of the other abf gene in multiple copy abf A- and abf B-transformants. It was proposed that the abf genes titrate two distinct gene activators both involved in coordination of arabinase gene expression. However, the three genes were shown to respond differently upon a mycelial transfer toL-arabitol-containing medium, indicating that gene-specific factors are also involved. Four distinct sequence motifs were found in common in the promoter regions of the three genes. One of these elements is identical to the A.nidulans CREA-motif, which has been shown to mediate carbon catabolite repression on several A.nidulans enzyme systems. Arabinase expression in A.niger is known to be repressed in the presence ofD-glucose. Two other motifs are highly homologous to cAMP-responsive elements described in other organisms. For the fourth motif no functional analogues could be found, but the element was found to be present in several other fungal genes which are not involved inL-arabinan degradation at all. It is therefore likely that none of these common elements confer system-specific regulation.The presumed involvement ofL-arabitol in the induction process of fungal arabinases was further emphasized by the induction characteristics of an A. nidulans mutant unable to grow on the end-product ofL-arabinan degradation,L-arabinose, nor onL-arabitol ( Chapter 6).L-Arabitol is an intermediate ofL-arabinose catabolism in Aspergilli. This mutant was shown to lack NAD +-dependentL-arabitol dehydrogenase activity resulting inL-arabitol accumulation, both intracellularly and in the culture medium, wheneverL-arabinose is present. Upon submerged growth on various carbon sources in the presence ofL-arabinose, the mutant featured enhanced expression of the enzymes involved in extracellularL-arabinan degradation, and of those of the intracellularL-arabinose catabolism. The co-substrates on which the mutant secreted large amounts of arabitol simultaneously exhibited high arabinase expression and featured reduced growth.L-Arabitol secretion and enzyme production were also observed on a mixed carbon source ofD-glucose andL-arabinose, resulting in normal growth. Hence, in the presence ofL- arabinose, the carbon catabolite repression conferred byD-glucose in the wild-type, is overruled in the mutant.In Chapter 7 , ABN A is shown to have remote sequence similarity with four bacterial xylanolytic glycosyl hydrolases (three β-D-xylosidases and an endo-1,4-β-D-xylanase), three of which feature activity against para -nitrophenyl-α-L-arabinofuranoside. This synthetic compound is commonly utilized to assay potential ABF activity, whereas it is known to be an inhibitor of the fourth enzyme. The homology became evident only after multi pie-sequence alignments and hydrophobic cluster analysis. It was proposed that these enzymes share a binding site for a terminal non-reducing α-linkedL-arabinofuranosyl residue and that they all belong to glycosyl hydrolase family 43. Implications from these suggestions were discussed. The ABFs could not be assigned to an established glycosyl hydrolase family.Based on theL-arabinolytic system of the brown-rot fungus Monilinia fructigena, the sequence similarity found amongst ABF A and bacterial pullulan-degrading enzymes, and ABF expression levels under carbon starvation conditions and onD-glucose as the carbon source, distinct functions inL-arabinan and plant cell-wall degradation were proposed for ABF A and ABF B. ABF A would be essentially cell-wall associated and act to degradeL-arabinan fragments generated by ABN A. ABF B activity would be important for the primary release of small amounts ofL-arabinose which initiate induction of various endolytic systems to degrade plant cell walls, and thus function in substrate sensing. In line with these considerations, the involvement of other, not yet identified glycosyl hydrolases inL-arabinan degradation by A.niger was suggested.Induction and repression of arabinase gene expression are further discussed in Chapter 7 . The results of the studies in A.niger (Chapter 5) and A.nidulans (Chapter 6) were interpreted in a mutual context. The identity of the lowmolecular-weight compound directly responsible for induction of arabinase gene expression, was addressed. BothL-arabinose andL-arabitol are likely candidates to fulfil such a role. However, it was not possible to weigh the actual inductive capacities ofL-arabinose andL-arabitol due to their in vivo convertibility and the carbon catabolite repression elicited by the pentose. Competition for such a compound provides an alternative explanation for the phenomena observed in Chapter 5. The involvement of the transcriptional repressor CREA in arabinase gene expression is not limited to the direct repression of structural and regulatory genes of theL-arabinan-degrading system. It also plays a role in inducer exclusion and end-product repression, two processes shown to be eminently involved in the regulation ofL-arabinan degradation in wild-type A.nidulans. Fungal growth rate was suggested to be related to derepression of theL-arabinan-degrading system. The possible involvement of cAMP in arabinase gene expression, as suggested by the presence of potential cis -acting cAMP-responsive elements in the structural genes, was considered. Various ways by which cAMP might modulate arabinase synthesis were surveyed.