A new and more alarming source of marine contamination has been recently identified in micro and nanosized plastic fragments. Microplastics are difficult to see with the naked eye and to biodegrade in marine environment, representing a problem since they can be ingested by plankton or other marine organisms, potentially entering the food web. An important source of microplastics appears to be through sewage contaminated by synthetic fibres from washing clothes. Since this phenomenon still lacks of a comprehensive analysis, the objective of this contribution was to investigate the role of washing processes of synthetic textiles on microplastic release. In particular, an analytical protocol was set up, based on the filtration of the washing water of synthetic fabrics and on the analysis of the filters by scanning electron microscopy. The quantification of the microfibre shedding from three different synthetic fabric types, woven polyester, knitted polyester, and woven polypropylene, during washing trials simulating domestic conditions, was achieved and statistically analysed. The highest release of microplastics was recorded for the wash of woven polyester and this phenomenon was correlated to the fabric characteristics. Moreover, the extent of microfibre release from woven polyester fabrics due to different detergents, washing parameters and industrial washes was evaluated. The number of microfibres released from a typical 5 kg wash load of polyester fabrics was estimated to be over 6,000,000 depending on the type of detergent used. The usage of a softener during washes reduces the number of microfibres released of more than 35%. The amount and size of the released microfibres confirm that they could not be totally retained by wastewater treatments plants, and potentially affect the aquatic environment.

Studies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and its metabolites in PM10, soils, rat livers and cattle urine in Kumasi, Ghana, revealed high concentrations and cancer potency. In addition, WHO and IARC have reported an increase in cancer incidence and respiratory diseases in Ghana. Human urine were therefore collected from urban and control sites to: assess the health effects associated with PAHs exposure using malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG); identify any association between OH-PAHs, MDA, 8-OHdG with age and sex; and determine the relationship between PAHs exposure and occurrence of respiratory diseases. From the results, urinary concentrations of the sum of OH-PAHs (∑OHPAHs) were significantly higher from urban sites compared to the control site. Geometric mean concentrations adjusted by specific gravity, GMSG, indicated 2-OHNaphthalene (2-OHNap) (6.01 ± 4.21 ng/mL) as the most abundant OH-PAH, and exposure could be through the use of naphthalene-containing-mothballs in drinking water purification, insect repellent, freshener in clothes and/or “treatment of various ailments”. The study revealed that exposure to naphthalene significantly increases the occurrence of persistent cough (OR = 2.68, CI: 1.43–5.05), persistent headache (OR = 1.82, CI: 1.02–3.26), tachycardia (OR = 3.36, CI: 1.39–8.10) and dyspnea (OR = 3.07, CI: 1.27–7.43) in Kumasi residents. Highest level of urinary 2-OHNap (224 ng/mL) was detected in a female, who reported symptoms of persistent cough, headache, tachycardia, nasal congestion and inflammation, all of which are symptoms of naphthalene exposure according to USEPA. The ∑OHPAHs, 2-OHNap, 2-3-OHFluorenes, and -OHPhenanthrenes showed a significantly positive correlation with MDA and 4-OHPhenanthrene with 8-OHdG, indicating possible lipid peroxidation/cell damage or degenerative disease in some participants. MDA and 8-OHdG were highest in age group 21–60. The present study showed a significant sex difference with higher levels of urinary OH-PAHs in females than males.

Dust ingestion is an important route of human exposure to organic contaminants, especially for flame retardants (FRs) in occupational settings. Several classes of organic contaminants were analyzed in matched dust and serum samples from academics and workers in electronics and clothing stores of Faisalabad, Pakistan. The concentrations of contaminants varied in dust as follow: organophosphate FRs (∑PFRs) > novel brominated FRs (∑NBFRs) > polybrominated diphenyl ethers (∑PBDEs) > organochlorine pesticides (∑OCPs) > polychlorinated biphenyls (∑PCBs), while, in serum, concentration varied: ∑OCPs > bromophenols (∑BPs) > ∑PCBs > ∑HO-PCBs ≈ ∑PBDEs. Two NBFRs, namely 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)-ethane (BTBPE) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (TBPH), were detected in <10% of the serum samples. p,p′-DDE was the major contaminant in serum contributing to ∼75% of the total contaminant burden. Levels of Penta-BDE congeners in serum and dust were significantly correlated (r = 0.64, p < 0.01) for the academics, suggesting dust ingestion as an important determinant for their serum levels.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been produced and used in a broad range of products since the 1950s. This class, comprising of thousands of chemicals, have been used in many different products ranging from firefighting foam to personal care products and clothes. Even at relatively low levels of exposure, PFAS have been linked to various health effects in humans such as lower birth weight, increased serum cholesterol levels, and reduced antibody response to vaccination. Human biomonitoring data demonstrates ubiquitous exposure to PFAS across all age groups. This has been attributed to PFAS-contaminated water and dietary intake, as well as inadvertent ingestion of indoor dust for adults and toddlers. In utero exposure and breast milk have been indicated as important exposure pathways for foetuses and nursing infants. More recently, PFAS have been identified in a wide range of products, many of which come in contact with skin (e.g., cosmetics and fabrics). Despite this, few studies have evaluated dermal uptake as a possible route for human exposure and little is known about the dermal absorption potential of different PFAS. This article critically investigates the current state-of-knowledge on human exposure to PFAS, highlighting the lack of dermal exposure data. Additionally, the different approaches for dermal uptake assessment studies are discussed and the available literature on human dermal absorption of PFAS is critically reviewed and compared to other halogenated contaminants, e.g., brominated flame retardants and its implications for dermal exposure to PFAS. Finally, the urgent need for dermal permeation and uptake studies for a wide range of PFAS and their precursors is highlighted and recommendations for future research to advance the current understanding of human dermal exposure to PFAS are discussed.

Synthetic microfibers have been identified as the most prevalent type of microplastic in samples from aquatic, atmospheric, and terrestrial environments across the globe. Apparel washing has shown to be a major source of microfiber pollution. We used California as a case study to estimate the magnitude and fate of microfiber emissions, and to evaluate potential mitigation approaches. First, we quantified synthetic microfiber emissions and fate from apparel washing in California by developing a material flow model which connects California-specific data on synthetic fiber consumption, apparel washing, microfiber generation, and wastewater and biosolid management practices. Next, we used the model to assess the effectiveness of different interventions to reduce microfiber emissions to natural environments. We estimate that in 2019 as much as 2.2 kilotons (kt) of synthetic microfibers were generated by apparel washing in California, a 26% increase since 2008. The majority entered terrestrial environments (1.6 kt), followed by landfills (0.4 kt), waterbodies (0.1 kt), and incineration (0.1 kt). California's wastewater treatment network was estimated to divert 95% of microfibers from waterbodies, mainly to terrestrial environments and primarily via land application of biosolids. Our analysis also reveals that application of biosolids on agricultural lands facilitates a directional flow of microfibers from higher-income urban counties to lower-income rural communities. Without interventions, annual synthetic microfiber emissions to California's natural environments are expected to increase by 17% to 2.1 kt by 2026. Further increasing the microfiber retention efficiency at the wastewater treatment plant would increase emissions to terrestrial environments, which suggests that microfibers should be removed before entering the wastewater system. In our model, full adoption of in-line filters in washing machines decreased annual synthetic microfiber emissions to natural environments by 79% to 0.5 kt and offered the largest reduction of all modeled scenarios.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) are commonly used in medical, cosmetics, clothing, and industrial applications for their antibacterial and catalytic properties. As AgNP become more prevalent, the doses to which humans are exposed may increase and pose health risks, particularly through incidental inhalation. This exposure was evaluated through in-vitro methods simulating lung fluids and lung epithelium, and through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods of AgNP transport. A high-dose scenario simulated a short-term inhalation of 10 μg AgNP/m³, based on an exposure limit recommended by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health for the case of a health-care worker who handles AgNP-infused wound dressings, and regularly wears AgNP-imbedded clothing. Bioaccessibility tests were followed by a Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA) and supported by CFD models of the lung alveoli, membrane, pores, and blood capillaries. Results indicate that such exposure produces an average and maximum AgNP flux of approximately 4.7 × 10⁻²¹ and 6.5 × 10⁻¹⁹ mol m⁻²·s⁻¹ through lung tissue, respectively, yielding a blood-silver accumulation of 0.46–64 mg per year, which may exceed the lowest adverse effect level of 25 mg for an adult male. Results from in-silico simulations were consistent with values estimated in vitro (within an order of magnitude), which suggest that CFD models may be used effectively to predict silver exposure from inhaled AgNP. Although the average short-term exposure concentrations are 3 orders of magnitude smaller than the reported threshold for mammalian cytotoxicity effects (observed at 5000 ppb), cumulative effects resulting from constant exposure to AgNP may pose risks to human health in the long-term, with predicted bioaccumulation reaching potential toxic effects after only five months of exposure, based on maximum flux.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are used in specialty/functional textiles to impart oil, water, and stain repellency. Little is known, however, with regard to the occurrence of PFASs in textiles including infant clothing. In this study, 13 perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), comprising four perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs; C4–C10) and nine perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs; C4–C12) were determined in 160 textile samples collected from the United States. Two extraction methods, one involving a simple solvent extraction (i.e., before oxidation) and the other with an oxidative treatment (i.e., after oxidation) of textile extracts, were used. The sum concentrations of 13 PFAAs (i.e., ∑PFAA) in textile extracts before oxidation ranged from <LOD to 63.7 μg/m² (<LOD–285 ng/g), with a mean value of 3.18 μg/m² (14.2 ng/g). ∑PFAA concentrations were the highest in flame retarded textiles (n = 23; mean: 13.3 μg/m²; 59.4 ng/g), followed by water repellent textiles (n = 56; 2.88 μg/m²; 12.9 ng/g) and infant clothes (n = 81; 0.521 μg/m²; 2.33 ng/g). C4–C10 PFCAs accounted for at least three-quarters of the ∑PFAA content in our textile samples. Textile extracts analyzed after oxidative treatment exhibited ∑PFAA concentrations 10-fold higher than those in extracts analyzed prior to oxidation, which suggested that PFAA precursors are used in textiles. Precursors that generated C4–C5 PFCAs, upon oxidation, were more prevalent than those that yielded PFOA. The calculated dermal exposure doses in infants of PFAAs present in clothes were at least 1–2 orders of magnitude below the reference doses proposed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. This is the first time that the oxidative treatment was applied in the analysis of PFASs in textiles, and our results suggest the existence of PFCA precursors in textiles.