In 2015 in the European Union member states listeriosis caused 270 deaths. Food is the route of transmission in 99% of all human infection cases. Several studies from different countries have shown that the presence of Listeria monocytogenes in food can be as high as 58.3%. One of the most important ways to protect food from these microorganisms is to prevent the spread of the bacteria at processing plants at different stages of food production chain. The ability of L. monocytogenes to survive in extreme conditions and to form biofilms on various surfaces is a significant challenge for food safety. Removal of these bacteria from niches in processing plants is difficult and requires the use of sanitisers and precise equipment cleaning. The presence of L. monocytogenes in processing environment at slaughterhouses, deli meat factories or in retail may be a reason of cross-contamination. Proper hygienic systems applied by workers in food preparing places and knowledge about different routes of spreading of these bacteria may effectively decrease the risk of food contamination. Standardised legal regulations and control of meat product manufacture should be a fundamental way to protect food from L. monocytogenes contamination.

Human brucellosis, a neglected zoonosis is endemic in KajiadoCounty in both man and livestock. The Kajiado County community’s mainlivelihood is livestock-keeping which puts it at risk. The study objective was to determine the community’s knowledge and practices, and the association between the two in relation to brucellosis. Results revealed three predictors of practices the community undertook that put them at risk of contracting brucellosis. The predictors were respondent’s education status (p=0.002 [CI 0.272-0.749] OR 0.451), knowledge of importance of pre-purchaselivestock breeding soundness (p=0.007 [CI 1.207-3.356] OR 2.013), and knowledge that livestock abortions could result in human disease (p=0.027 [CI 1.070-2.974] OR 1.783). This meant that respondents without formal education were nearly half less likely to undertake practices that prevented transmission of brucellosis than those withformal education. Respondents who knew that livestock examination was important for breeding soundness were twice more likely to engage in practices that prevented brucellosis transmission than those whodid not know. Respondents who knew that livestock abortions could lead to diseases in man were nearly twice more likely to engage in practices that prevented transmission of brucellosis than those whodid not know that livestock abortions could lead to diseases in man. It was concluded that the community’s knowledge and practices that promote brucellosis were inadequate. Two key recommendationswere drawn. There was need to create awareness in the community on the risk factors and practices that contribute to occurrence of human brucellosis. There was need for using qualified animal health providers to mitigate the disease in animals.

Brucella melitensis is the Brucella species most frequently associated with brucellosis in humans. It is also the causative agent of the disease in goats and other ruminants. Although significant aspects of the pathogenesis of infection by this intracellular pathogen have been clarified, several events during invasion of host cells remain to be elucidated. In this study, infections of human macrophages from the THP-1 monocyte cell line were conducted with B. melitensis Bm133 wild-type strain and a strain of Salmonella serovar Enteritidis as a control. A multiplicity of infection of 100 was used in trials focused on defining the relative expression of syntaxin 4 (STX4), a soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor, in the early events of phagocytosis (at 15, 30, 45, and 60 min). Immunoblot assays were also done to visualize expression of the protein in cells infected with either bacterial strain. The expression of STX4 was not significantly different in cells infected with B. melitensis strain Bm133 compared to that observed in cells infected with S. Enteritidis. When the expression of STX4 mRNA was inhibited with short or small interfering, or silencing, RNA in the THP-1 cells, the survival of B. melitensis was significantly reduced at time 0, when gentamicin treatment of cultures was begun (after 1 h of phagocytosis), and also at 2 h and 12 h after infection.

Chromobacterium violaceum is a facultative anaerobic, gram-negative rodshaped bacteria normally found in soil and stagnant water of tropical and subtropical countries. Infections of Chromobacterium violaceum are rare among mammals, but the first human infection were reported in Malaysia in 1927. This clinical case reports two separate cases of Chromobacterium violaceum infection in two sub-adult male Black-handed Gibbon (Hylobates agilis). Both animals were presented with the history of diarrhea, pyrexia and inappetance. From the physical examination, the findings were high body temperature, dull, inactive, soft fecal stained at the rectum and small open wound at lower limb of one of the case. The treatment given was antipyretic and multivitamin. Unfortunately, due to poor prognosis both patients died within 48 hours after presentation and treatment. Autopsy examinations wereperformed to find out the cause of death. Post mortem examination findings revealed hepatomegaly with multiple size whitish-yellow spots on the liver surface, congestion and enlargement of spleen and lymph node, congestion of lung and loss of demarcation between renal cortex and medulla of the kidney. The cellular changes via histopathological findings of kidney, spleen, lung and liver were suggestive of septicaemia. The gross and histopathologicalfindings were supported by the isolation of Chromobacterium violaceum via bacterial isolation and identification from lung, liver, spleen and kidney. Thus, the cause of death of the two sub-adult male Black-handed gibbon in this case are due to septicaemiadue to Chromobacterium violaceum infection.

Feral pigeons (Columbia livia) can harbor a range of zoonotic pathogens. A transversal study was undertaken to estimate the prevalence of feral pigeons infected by various pathogens in public areas in Montreal, Quebec. Cloacal swabs from captured birds were cultured for Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. and tested by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for the detection of Coxiella burnetii. An oropharyngeal swab was also submitted to real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) for the detection of Newcastle disease virus. Among the 187 pigeons tested from 10 public areas, 9.1% (95% CI: 3.0 to 15.2) were positive for Campylobacter spp. with all strains identified as Campylobacter jejuni. The Campylobacter status of birds was not associated with individual characteristics of birds, with the exception of body score. None of the pigeons tested positive for the other pathogens. Direct or indirect contacts with feral pigeons may constitute a potential risk for Campylobacter infection in humans.

Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) are important foodborne pathogens in Canada. VTEC of the O157:H7 serogroup have been the focus of regulatory action and surveillance in both Canada and the USA, due to their role in a number of high profile outbreaks. However, there is increasing evidence that other VTEC serogroups cause a substantial proportion of human illness. This issue is of particular importance to the cattle industry due to the role of beef as a vehicle for VTEC transmission. In this review, the evidence for non-O157 VTEC as cause of human illness in Canada and the potential for Canadian beef and cattle to serve as a source of VTEC are presented. In addition, the available strategies for the control of VTEC in cattle and beef are discussed.

The effects of canine parvovirus (CPV) infection in dogs with hemolytic anemia was compared with the clinical effects of human parvovirus-induced aplastic anemia in human beings with chronic regenerative anemias. Phenylhydrazine was used to induce a transient, severe, hemolytic anemia in dogs to evaluate the effects of CPV infection on rapidly dividing bone marrow precursors. Erythrocyte colony-forming unit bone marrow cultures and cytologic examination of bone marrow were used to determine the effects of CPV infection on erythroid bone marrow precursors. The induced hemolytic anemia regenerated rapidly and although the bone marrow was infected, it was determined that CPV infection did not induce a detectable decrease in erythroid progenitors in dogs with severe hemolytic anemia.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium has a wide host range and is capable of causing infections ranging from severe gastroenteritis to systemic infection in humans. To determine if attenuated S. Typhimurium strains can serve as safe and effective oral vaccines to prevent typhoid fever, the biologic characteristics of crp and sipB deletion mutants were evaluated. Previous studies had found that the crp and sipB genes are related to Salmonella pathogenicity. In this study, cytotoxicity, protective efficacy, and immune responses of the host were analyzed. Our previous data had shown a significance decrease in virulence for the crp and sipB mutants compared with a wild-type strain. The current study confirmed this finding in HeLa cells and showed that the crp mutant was significantly less cytotoxic (P < 0.05) than the sipB mutant. Mice vaccinated with the crp mutant showed significantly better protection after challenge with the wild-type strain (P < 0.05) and significantly greater responses in serum IgG (P < 0.01) and secretory IgA (P < 0.05) compared with the mice vaccinated with the sipB mutant (P < 0.05). Our results indicate that the crp mutant has the potential to be a vaccine candidate and is safe in mice.

The H9N2 strains of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulate worldwide in poultry and cause sporadic infection in humans. To better understand the evolution of these viruses while circulating in poultry, an H9N2 chicken isolate was passaged 19 times in chickens via aerosol inoculation. Whole-genome sequencing showed that the viruses from the initial stock and those after the 8th and 19th passages (P0, P8, and P19) all had the same monobasic cleavage site in the hemagglutinin (HA), typical for viruses of low pathogenicity. However, at position 226 of the HA protein the ratio of glutamine (which favors avian-type receptor binding) to leucine (which favors mammalian-type receptor binding) decreased from 54:46 in P0, to 87:13 in P8, and then 0:100 in P19. In chickens exposed to aerosols of P0, P8, or P19, replication of the viruses was similar and mainly limited to the respiratory tract. None of the infected chickens showed any clinical signs. Over the 19 passages the viruses maintained relatively stable infectivity but gradually lost lethality to chicken embryos. According to the hemagglutination inactivation assay, P8 was slightly and P19 significantly (P < 0.05) less thermostable than P0. Collectively, after 19 passages in chickens the H9N2 AIVs retained low pathogenicity with a positive selection of L226 in the HA. These findings suggest that H9N2 viruses might acquire mammalian specificity after asymptomatic circulation in avian species.

Turkey enteric coronavirus (TCV) from intestinal contents of diarrheal poults was isolated and serially propagated in HRT-18 cells, an established cell line derived from a human rectal adenocarcinoma. In these cells, TCV induced cytopathic changes, including polykaryocytosis, which depended on trypsin in the medium and incubation at 41 C. Viral antigens could be demonstrated in the cytoplasm by immunofluorescence, and extracellular virus was detected by an ELISA and negative electron microscopy. The cell-free virus had characteristics of TCV: shape, surface projections, buoyant density of 1.18 to 1.20 g/ml in sucrose, and hemagglutination of rat RBC. The one-step growth curve was complete by postinoculation hours 14 to 16, and maximal titers reached 9 to 9.5 log10 TCID50/ml during 5 passages, after which the titer remained stable. Electron microscopic examination of infected cell monolayers revealed budding of typical coronavirus particles through intracytoplasmic membranes and accumulation of complete virus in cytoplasmic vesicles. Late in the infection, aggregated progeny vial particles were detected near the outer surface of infected cells. One-day-old turkey poults inoculated orally with tissue culture-adapted TCV isolates developed mild to severe diarrhea.