We studied elevated CO2 and ozone effects in single and in combination on crown structure of two Betula pendula clones. Shoot ramification, shoot length, number of metamers, leaves and buds were measured at four heights in every tree. Chamber effect was substantial on sylleptic branching and on shoot length and ramification. However these responses differed between the clones. Ozone treatment affected shoot length and caused slight decrease in shoot ramification. Elevated CO2 affected appearance of long shoots in complex manner, but in lower crown positions CO2 caused increased number of long shoots in both clones

The emission of mercury (Hg) from cropland soil greatly affects the global Hg cycle. Combinations of different crop cultivars and planting densities will result in different light transmittance under canopies, which directly affects the solar and heat radiation flux received by the soil surface below crops. In turn, this might lead to differences in the soil–air total gaseous mercury (TGM) exchange under different cropping patterns. However, soil–air TGM exchange fluxes in croplands under differing canopies have been poorly investigated. Here, a one-year observation of TGM exchange flux was conducted for cropland soils covering five different crop cultivars and three planting densities in North China Plain using the dynamic flux chamber method. The results showed that light transmittance under the canopies was the key control on soil–air TGM exchange fluxes. High light transmittance can enhance soil TGM emission rates and increase the magnitude of diurnal variations in soil–air TGM exchange fluxes. Furthermore, we found that there were piecewise–function relationships (Peak function–constant equation) between light transmittance under the different canopies and the numbers of days after crop sowing. The soil–air TGM exchange fluxes showed a parabolic response to changes in light transmittance under the different canopies. A second-order model was established for the response relationship between soil–air TGM exchange flux and soil Hg concentration, total solar radiation above the canopy, and numbers of days after sowing. The estimated annual average soil–air TGM exchange flux was 5.46 ± 21.69 ng m⁻² h⁻¹ at corn–wheat rotation cropland with 30 cm row spacing using this second-order model. Our results might a data reference and a promising foundation for future model development of soil–air TGM exchange in croplands under different crop cultivars and planting densities.

We investigated isoprene (ISO) emission and gas exchange in leaves from different positions along the vertical canopy profile of poplar saplings (Populus euramericana cv. ‘74/76’). For a growing season, plants were subjected to four N treatments, control (NC, no N addition), low N (LN, 50 kg N ha⁻¹year⁻¹), middle N (MN, 100 kg N ha⁻¹year⁻¹), high N (HN, 200 kg N ha⁻¹year⁻¹) and three O₃ treatments (CF, charcoal-filtered ambient air; NF, non-filtered ambient air; NF + O₃, NF + 40 ppb O₃). Our results showed the effects of O₃ and/or N on standardized ISO rate (ISOᵣₐₜₑ) and photosynthetic parameters differed along with the leaf position, with larger negative effects of O₃ and positive effects of N on ISOᵣₐₜₑ and photosynthetic parameters in the older leaves. Expanded young leaves were insensitive to both treatments even at very high O₃ concentration (67 ppb as 10-h average) and HN treatment. Significant O₃ × N interactions were only found in middle and lower leaves, where ISOᵣₐₜₑ declined by O₃ just when N was limited (NC and LN). With increasing light-saturated photosynthesis and chlorophyll content, ISOᵣₐₜₑ was reduced in the upper leaves but on the contrary increased in middle and lower leaves. The responses of ISOᵣₐₜₑ to AOT40 (accumulated exposure to hourly O₃ concentrations > 40 ppb) and PODY (accumulative stomatal uptake of O₃ > Y nmol O₃ m⁻² PLA s⁻¹) were not significant in upper leaves, but ISOᵣₐₜₑ significantly decreased with increasing AOT40 or PODY under limited N supply in middle leaves but at all N levels in lower leaves. Overall, ISOᵣₐₜₑ changed along the vertical canopy profile in response to combined O₃ and N exposure, a behavior that should be incorporated into multi-layer canopy models. Our results are relevant for modelling regional isoprene emissions under current and future O₃ pollution and N deposition scenarios.

Global urbanisation has resulted in population densification, which is associated with increased air pollution, mainly from anthropogenic sources. One of the systems proposed to mitigate urban air pollution is urban forestry. This study quantified the spatial associations between concentrations of CO, NO₂, SO₂, and PM₁₀ and urban forestry, whilst correcting for anthropogenic sources and sinks, thus explicitly testing the hypothesis that urban forestry is spatially associated with reduced air pollution on a city scale. A Land Use Regression (LUR) model was constructed by combining air pollutant concentrations with environmental variables, such as land cover type and use, to develop predictive models for air pollutant concentrations. Traffic density and industrial air pollutant emissions were added to the model as covariables to permit testing of the main effects after correcting for these air pollutant sources. It was found that the concentrations of all air pollutants were negatively correlated with tree canopy cover and positively correlated with dwelling density, population density and traffic count. The LUR models enabled the establishment of a statistically significant spatial relationship between urban forestry and air pollution mitigation. These findings further demonstrate the spatial relationships between urban forestry and reduced air pollution on a city-wide scale, and could be of value in developing planning policies focused on urban greening.

World soils are subjected to a number of anthropogenic global change factors. Although many previous studies contributed to understand how single global change factors affect soil properties, there have been few studies aimed at understanding how two naturally co-occurring global change drivers, nitrogen (N) deposition and increased precipitation, affect critical soil properties. In addition, most atmospheric N deposition and precipitation increase studies have been simulated by directly adding N solution or water to the forest floor, and thus largely neglect some key canopy processes in natural conditions. These previous studies, therefore, may not realistically simulate natural atmospheric N deposition and precipitation increase in forest ecosystems. In a field experiment, we used novel canopy applications to investigate the effects of N deposition, increased precipitation, and their combination on soil chemical properties and the microbial community in a temperate deciduous forest. We found that both soil chemistry and microorganisms were sensitive to these global change factors, especially when they were simultaneously applied. These effects were evident within 2 years of treatment initiation. Canopy N deposition immediately accelerated soil acidification, base cation depletion, and toxic metal accumulation. Although increased precipitation only promoted base cation leaching, this exacerbated the effects of N deposition. Increased precipitation decreased soil fungal biomass, possible due to wetting/re-drying stress or to the depletion of Na. When N deposition and increased precipitation occurred together, soil gram-negative bacteria decreased significantly, and the community structure of soil bacteria was altered. The reduction of gram-negative bacterial biomass was closely linked to the accumulation of the toxic metals Al and Fe. These results suggested that short-term responses in soil cations following N deposition and increased precipitation could change microbial biomass and community structure.

Ozone (O3) critical levels (CLe) are still poorly developed for herbaceous vegetation. They are currently based on single species responses which do not reflect the multi-species nature of semi-natural vegetation communities. Also, the potential effects of other factors like the nitrogen (N) input are not considered in their derivation, making their use uncertain under natural conditions.Exposure- and dose-response relationships were derived from two open-top chamber experiments exposing a mixture of 6 representative annual Mediterranean pasture species growing in natural soil to 4 O3 fumigation levels and 3 N inputs. The Deposition of O3 and Stomatal Exchange model (DO3SE) was modified to account for the multi-species nature of the canopy following a big-leaf approach. This new approach was used for estimating a multi-species phytotoxic O3 dose (PODy-MS). Response relationships were derived based on O3 exposure (AOT40) and flux (PODy-MS) indices.The treatment effects were similar in the two seasons: O3 reduced the aboveground biomass growth and N modulated this response. Gas exchange rates presented a high inter-specific variability and important inter-annual fluctuations as a result of varying growing conditions during the two years. The AOT40-based relationships were not statistically significant except when the highest N input was considered alone. In contrast, PODy-MS relationships were all significant but for the lowest N input level. The influence of the N input on the exposure- and dose-response relationships implies that N can modify the O3 CLe. However, this is an aspect that has not been considered so far in the methodologies for establishing O3 CLe. Averaging across N input levels, a multi-species O3 CLe (CLef-MS) is proposed POD1-MS = 7.9 mmol m⁻², accumulated over 1.5 month with a 95% confidence interval of (5.9, 9.8). Further efforts will be needed for comparing the CLef-MS with current O3 CLef based on single species responses.

We aimed to clarify the effects of ozone (O3) on photosynthetic ability of upper and lower canopy leaves of Fagus crenata Blume seedlings grown under different soil nutrient conditions. To accomplish this objective, we analyzed the response of photosynthetic parameters such as maximum carboxylation rate (Vcmax) to cumulative stomatal O3 uptake (ΣFst) and reduction rate of Vcmax per unit ΣFst as an index of detoxification capacity for O3. The seedlings of Fagus crenata were grown for two growing seasons (2014–2015) in nine treatments comprised of a combination of three levels of gas treatments (charcoal-filtered air or 1.0- or 1.5-times ambient O3 concentration) and three levels of soil nutrient treatments (non-fertilized or a supply of relatively low or high concentrations of compound fertilizer). The nutrient supply significantly increased the degree of O3-induced reduction in Vcmax in September. However, nutrient supply did not significantly increase ΣFst and reduce the detoxification capacity for O3. On the other hand, the degree of O3-induced reduction in Vcmax of upper canopy leaves was higher as compared with that of lower canopy leaves in August due to the higher ΣFst. However, the reduction rate of Vcmax per unit ΣFst in lower canopy leaves was higher than that in upper canopy leaves, indicating lower detoxification capacity for O3 in lower canopy leaves. Reduction rate of Vcmax per unit ΣFst over the threshold, which is assumed to be proportional to gross photosynthetic rate, was similar between upper and lower canopy leaves. Therefore, capacity of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation is likely to be associated with detoxification capacity for O3 in upper and lower canopy leaves of F. crenata seedlings grown under different soil nutrient conditions.

Air pollutants emitted from vehicles in street canyons may be reactive, undergoing mixing and chemical processing before escaping into the overlying atmosphere. The deterioration of air quality in street canyons occurs due to combined effects of proximate emission sources, dynamical processes (reduced dispersion) and chemical processes (evolution of reactive primary and formation of secondary pollutants). The coupling between dynamics and chemistry plays a major role in determining street canyon air quality, and numerical model approaches to represent this coupling are reviewed in this article. Dynamical processes can be represented by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques. The choice of CFD approach (mainly the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) models) depends on the computational cost, the accuracy required and hence the application. Simplified parameterisations of the overall integrated effect of dynamics in street canyons provide capability to handle relatively complex chemistry in practical applications. Chemical processes are represented by a chemical mechanism, which describes mathematically the chemical removal and formation of primary and secondary species. Coupling between these aspects needs to accommodate transport, dispersion and chemical reactions for reactive pollutants, especially fast chemical reactions with time scales comparable to or shorter than those of typical turbulent eddies inside the street canyon. Different approaches to dynamical and chemical coupling have varying strengths, costs and levels of accuracy, which must be considered in their use for provision of reference information concerning urban canopy air pollution to stakeholders considering traffic and urban planning policies.

To investigate the size distributions of chemical compositions and sources of particulate matter (PM) at ground level and from the urban canopy, a study was conducted on a 255 m meteorological tower in Tianjin from December 2013 to January 2014. Thirteen sets of 8 size-segregated particles were collected with cascade impactor at 10 m and 220 m. Twelve components of particles, including water-soluble inorganic ions and carbonaceous species, were analyzed and used to apportion the sources of PM with positive matrix factorization. Our results indicated that the concentrations, size distributions of chemical compositions and sources of PM at the urban canopy were affected by regional transport due to a stable layer approximately 200 m and higher wind speed at 220 m. The concentrations of PM, Cl− and elemental carbon (EC) in fine particles at 10 m were higher than that at 220 m, while the reverse was true for NO3− and SO42−. The concentrations of Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl− and EC in coarse particles at 10 m were higher than that at 220 m. The size distributions of major primary species, such as Cl−, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and EC, were similar at two different heights, indicating that there were common and dominant sources. The peaks of SO42−, NH4+, NO3− and organic carbon (OC), which were partly secondary generated species, shifted slightly to the smaller particles at 220 m, indicating that there was a different formation mechanism. Industrial pollution and coal combustion, re-suspended dust and marine salt, traffic emissions and transport, and secondary inorganic aerosols were the major sources of PM at both heights. With the increase in vertical height, the influence of traffic emissions, re-suspended dust and biomass burning on PM weakened, but the characteristics of regional transport from Hebei Province and Beijing gradually become obvious.