Aquatic organisms are exposed to complex mixtures of pesticides in the environment, but traditional risk assessment approaches typically only consider individual compounds. In conjunction with exposure to pesticide mixtures, global climate change is anticipated to alter thermal regimes of waterways, leading to potential co-exposure of biota to elevated temperatures and contaminants. Furthermore, most studies utilize aqueous exposures, whereas the dietary route of exposure may be more important for fish owing to the hydrophobicity of many pesticides. Consequently, the current study aimed to determine the effects of elevated temperatures and dietary pesticide mixtures on swimming performance and lipid metabolism of juvenile Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. Fish were fed pesticide-dosed pellets at three concentrations and three temperatures (11, 14 and 17 °C) for 14 days and swimming performance (Uₘₐₓ) and expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism and energetics were assessed (ATP citrate lyase, fatty acid synthase, farnesoid x receptor and liver x receptor). The low-pesticide pellet treatment contained five pesticides, p,p’-DDE, bifenthrin, esfenvalerate, chlorpyrifos and fipronil at concentrations based on prey items collected from the Sacramento River (CA, USA) watershed, with the high-pesticide pellet treatment containing a six times higher dose. Temperature exacerbated effects of pesticide exposure on swimming performance, with significant reductions in Uₘₐₓ of 31 and 23% in the low and high-pesticide pellet groups relative to controls at 17 °C, but no significant differences in Uₘₐₓ among pesticide concentrations at 11 or 14 °C. At 14 °C there was a significant positive relationship between juvenile Chinook salmon pesticide body residues and expression of ATP citrate lyase and fatty acid synthase, but an inverse relationship and significant downregulation at 17 °C. These findings suggest that temperature may modulate effects of environmentally relevant pesticide exposure on salmon, and that pesticide-induced impairment of swimming performance may be exacerbated under future climate scenarios.

Several metabolic parameters were assessed in juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) residing in two estuaries receiving wastewater treatment effluent and one reference estuary. We also conducted a laboratory study with fish dosed for 32 days with 16 of the most common contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) detected in feral fish. Several blood chemistry parameters and other indicators of health were measured in fish from the field and laboratory study that were used to assess potential metabolic disruption. The blood chemistry values observed in feral juvenile Chinook salmon were relatively consistent among fish collected from effluent-impacted sites and substantially different compared to reference site fish. These responses were more pronounced in Chinook salmon, which is supported by the disparity in accumulated CECs. The blood chemistry results for juvenile Chinook salmon collected at effluent-impacted sites exhibited a pattern generally consistent with starvation because of similarities to observations from studies of food-deprived fish; however, this response is not consistent with physical starvation but may be contaminant induced. The altered blood chemistry parameters are useful as an early indicator of metabolic stress, even though organismal characteristics (lipid content and condition factor) were not different among sites indicating an early response. Evidence of metabolic disruption was also observed in juvenile Chinook salmon that were exposed in the laboratory to a limited mixture of CECs; however, the plasma parameters were qualitatively different possibly due to exposure route, season, or the suite of CECs. Growth was impaired in the high-dose fish during the dosing phase and the low- and medium-dose fish assayed after 2 weeks of depuration. Overall, these results are consistent with metabolic disruption for fish exposed to CECs, which may result in early mortality or an impaired ability to compete for limited resources.

Juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) of the Sacramento River system encounter many anthropogenically-induced stressors while rearing and migrating to the Pacific Ocean. Located in a prominent agricultural region, the watershed serves as a source of notable contaminants including pesticides. Salmon rearing in riverine and floodplain areas are potentially exposed to these compounds via dietary exposure, which can vary based on selected food webs. Previous studies have suggested that juvenile Chinook salmon rearing in riverine and floodplain environments of the Sacramento River watershed are characterized by different dietary preferences, with potential for contrasting pesticide exposure between habitats. To examine the potential for pesticide exposure, juvenile Chinook salmon and known dietary items were collected in the mainstem Sacramento River and an adjacent floodplain, the Yolo Bypass, in 2019 and 2020, and analyzed for 33 pesticides, including degradates and isomers. Organochlorine pesticides including the DDX group (p,p’-DDT, p,p’-DDD and p,p’-DDE) were prevalent in all examined biota. There was a significantly greater number of total pesticide detections across all classes in zooplankton compared to macroinvertebrates, coupled with higher bifenthrin concentrations in zooplankton across regions and years, which may indicate different exposure potential depending on fish dietary preferences. Detection frequencies and concentrations of organochlorines were higher in prey items during flooding than in drought conditions, suggesting resuspension of legacy compounds. Significantly higher concentrations of organochlorines were recorded in floodplain rearing fish compared to the Sacramento River. These findings suggest that within these habitats, juvenile Chinook salmon feeding primarily on zooplankton within the water column may be exposed to a greater range of pesticides than those feeding on benthic macroinvertebrates, and that the benefits of floodplain rearing may come at a cost of increased organochlorine exposure.