Halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) were measured in 470 waste plastic articles from Ireland between 2019 and 2020. We identified articles containing concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), and tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A) exceeding European Union limits. Enforcement of existing limits of 1000 mg/kg will render an estimated 3.1% (2800 t) of articles in the waste categories studied unrecyclable, increasing to: 4.0, 4.9, and 5.6% if limits were reduced to 500, 200, and 100 mg/kg respectively. Meanwhile, enforcing limits of 1,000, 500, 200, and 100 mg/kg will respectively remove 78, 82, 84, and 85% of PBDEs, HBCDD, and TBBP-A present in such waste. Other FRs targeted were detected infrequently and predominantly at very low concentrations. However, 2,4,6-tris(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)-1,3,5-triazine (TTBP-TAZ) was detected in 3 display/IT product samples at 14,000 to 32,000 mg/kg, indicating elevated concentrations of FRs used as alternatives to PBDEs and HBCDD, will likely increase in future. Comparison with data for Ireland in 2015–16, revealed concentrations and exceedances of limits for PBDEs, HBCDD, and TBBP-A were similar or have declined. For end-of-life vehicle fabrics and foams, HBCDD and ΣPBDE concentrations declined significantly (p < 0.05) since 2015–16. Moreover, ΣPBDE concentrations in waste small domestic appliances are significantly lower in 2019–20, with a similarly significant decline for TBBP-A in waste IT and telecommunications articles. In contrast, HBCDD concentrations in waste extruded polystyrene increased significantly between 2015–16 and 2019–20. For other waste categories studied, no statistically significant temporal trends are evident (p > 0.05). Fewer samples exceeded PBDE and HBCDD limits in 2019–20 (7.8%) than 2015–16 (8.7%), while exceedances for TBBP-A fell from 2.4% in 2015–16 to 0.57% in 2019–20. While comparison between the 2015–16 and 2019-20 datasets provide a preliminary indication of changes, further monitoring is required if the impact of legislation designed to eliminate HFRs from the waste stream is to be fully evaluated.

Noise pollution is a pervasive factor that increasingly threatens natural resources and human health worldwide. In particular, large-scale changes in road networks have driven shifts in the acoustic environment of rural landscapes during the past few decades. Using sampling plots from the Spanish Landscape Monitoring System (SISPARES), 16 km² each, we modelled the spatio-temporal changes in road traffic noise pollution in Ecoregion 1 of Spain (approximately 66,000 km²). We selected a study period that was characterised by significant changes in the size of the road network and the vehicle fleet (i.e. between 1995 and 2014) and used standard and validated acoustic computation methods for environmental noise modelling (i.e. European Directive, 2002/49/EC) within sampling plots. We then applied a multiple linear regression to expand noise modelling throughout the whole of Ecoregion 1. Our results showed that the noise level increased by 1.7 dB(A) in average per decade in approximately 65% of the territory, decreased by 1.3 dB(A) per decade in about 33%, and remained unchanged in 2%. This suggests that road traffic noise pollution levels may not grow homogeneously in large geographical areas, maybe due to the concentration of large fast traffic flows on modern motorways connecting towns. Our research exemplifies how landscape monitoring systems such as cost-effective approaches may play an important role when assessing spatio-temporal patterns and the impact of anthropogenic noise pollution at large geographical scales, and even more so in a global context of constricted resources and limited availability of historical data on traffic and environmental noise monitoring.

Air pollution constitutes the greatest environmental threat to human health in the European Union. In Poland, the emission of particulate matter and harmful gases originating from local coal based boiler plants and the combustion of fuels in residential heating appliances is a considerable source of air pollution. The combustion of fuel in home furnaces is inefficient due to the use of cheap fuels of low heating parameters and the frequent addition of waste. For the purpose of the research, deciduous tree wood pellets were selected as the basic fuel with the admixture of plastic waste, rubber, waste paper, wood residues, diapers, textile waste, multi-material packaging, construction waste, biomass and alternative fuel (RDF). Examining ash samples to confirm the practices of combusting or co-combusting waste materials in heating appliances is considered to be one of the most reliable detection methods; however, the results of direct research require further data processing. The application of hierarchical clustering analysis to the obtained results arranged into a matrix enabled in a simple way to demonstrate the similarities between the examined samples of fuel and the samples of fuel mixed with waste materials in the parameters space as well as to analyze the similarities among the measured parameters (the content of particular elements in ash) in the space of the examined samples. The application of chemometric methods for the purpose of identifying the combusted fuels, and, in particular the co-combusted waste complements the currently used monitoring tools which control the use of low quality fuels or the combustion of waste of different origin.

To evaluate pesticide regulatory standards in agricultural crops, we introduced a regulatory modeling framework that can flexibly evaluate a population’s aggregate exposure risk via maximum residue levels (MRLs) under good agricultural practice (GAP). Based on the structure of the aggregate exposure model and the nature of variable distributions, we optimized the framework to achieve a simplified mathematical expression based on lognormal variables including the lognormal sum approximation and lognormal product theorem. The proposed model was validated using Monte Carlo simulation, which demonstrates a good match for both head and tail ends of the distribution (e.g., the maximum error = 2.01% at the 99th percentile). In comparison with the point estimate approach (i.e., theoretical maximum daily intake, TMDI), the proposed model produced higher simulated daily intake (SDI) values based on empirical and precautionary assumptions. For example, the values at the 75th percentile of the SDI distributions simulated from the European Union (EU) MRLs of 13 common pesticides in 12 common crops were equal to the estimated TMDI values, and the SDI values at the 99th percentile were over 1.6-times the corresponding TMDI values. Furthermore, the model was refined by incorporating the lognormal distributions of biometric variables (i.e., food intake rate, processing factor, and body weight) and varying the unit-to-unit variability factor (VF) of the pesticide residues in crops. This ensures that our proposed model is flexible across a broad spectrum of pesticide residues. Overall, our results show that the SDI is significantly reduced, which may better reflect reality. In addition, using a point estimate or lognormal PF distribution is effective as risk assessments typically focus on the upper end of the distribution.

Pharmaceuticals such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been found in the marine environment. Although there is a large body of evidence that pharmaceutical drugs exert negative impacts on aquatic organisms, especially in the freshwater compartment, only limited studies are available on bioconcentration and the effects of NSAIDs on marine organisms. Bivalves have a high ecological and socio-economic value and are considered good bioindicator species in ecotoxicology and risk assessment programs. Therefore, this review summarizes current knowledge on the bioconcentration and the effects of three widely used NSAIDs, diclofenac, ibuprofen and paracetamol, in marine bivalves exposed under laboratory conditions. These pharmaceutical drugs were chosen based on their environmental occurrence both in frequency and concentration that may warrant their inclusion in the European Union Watch List. It has been highlighted that ambient concentrations may result in negative effects on wild bivalves after long-term exposures. Also, higher trophic level organisms may be more impacted due to food-chain transfer (e.g., humans are shellfish consumers). Overall, the three selected NSAIDs were reported to bioconcentrate in marine bivalves, with recognized effects at different life-stages. Immune responses were the main target of a long-term exposure to the drugs. The studies selected support the inclusion of diclofenac on the European Union Watch List and highlight the importance of extending research for ibuprofen and paracetamol due to their demonstrated negative effects on marine bivalves exposed to environmental realistic concentrations, under laboratory conditions.

In compliance to European Union directives to reuse urban wastes as secondary fuels, the aim of present work was to investigate and control the environmental impact from disposal of ashes generated by combustion of a bio-solid, an olive by-product and their blend. Two waste materials were admixed with the ash and their performance as potential stabilizers was assessed. Metals and ions leached through a soil were measured.The results showed that dissolution of some alkaline substances raised the pH of water effluents, decreasing the extractability of heavy metals from the ashes. In some cases Cr and As leached reached hazardous levels. Upon addition of waste materials to ash, the concentration of Cr in liquid extracts was reduced by 35–97%, while that of Cu and As by 100%. All heavy metal values measured in the leachates were decreased to values below legislation limits. The mineralogy, the chemistry and the pH of solids involved were key factors for the retention of elements.

Contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in children’s toys and jewelry is an ongoing problem where PTEs can become bioavailable especially via oral pathway (ingestion as a whole or of parts, and mouthing) and may cause adverse health effects for children. In the present review, legislation updates from the last decade in the United States (U.S.), Canada, and the European Union (E.U.) on PTEs in toys and jewelry are presented. Then, a literature review mostly covering the last decade on the total concentration, bioavailability, children’s exposure, and bioaccessibility of PTEs in toys and jewelry is provided. The U.S. and Canadian legislations mainly focus on lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) total/soluble concentration limits to prevent exposure and have received several updates within the last decade, extending particularly the covered span of children’s products. It seems that the introduction, subsequent enforcement, and update of regulations in developed countries have shifted the problem towards developing countries. In terms of categories, metallic toys and children’s jewelry still have the most severe PTE contamination and the presence of Pb and Cd in these articles is an ongoing issue. Some studies suggest that color can be used as an indicator for the potential presence of PTEs (linked to chemicals such as lead chromate, cadmium sulfide) but the evidence is not always clear. Another concern is vintage/second-hand toys and jewelry as those items might have been produced before the legislation was present. As total and bioaccessible concentrations of PTEs in toys and jewelry do not always correlate, approaches considering bioaccessibility (e.g. of the E.U.) are more scientifically appropriate and help with better estimation of risk from exposure. Studies on toy and jewelry contamination using in vitro bioaccessibility techniques has become more common, however, there is still no in vitro test specifically designed and validated for toys and jewelry.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) including PCDD/Fs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are among the most important and hazardous pollutants of soil. Food producing animals such as chicken, beef, sheep and goats can take up soil while grazing or living outdoors (free-range) and this can result in contamination.In recent decades, large quantities of brominated flame retardants such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) and per- and polyfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) have been produced and released into the environment and this has resulted in widespread contamination of soils and other environmental matrices. These POPs also bioaccumulate and can contaminate food of animal origin resulting in indirect exposure of humans.Recent assessments of chicken and beef have shown that surprisingly low concentrations of PCBs and PCDD/Fs in soil can result in exceedances of regulatory limits in food. Soil contamination limits have been established in a number of countries for PCDD/Fs but it has been shown that the contamination levels which result in regulatory limits in food (the maximum levels in the European Union) being exceeded, are below all the existing soil regulatory limits. ‘Safe’ soil levels are exceeded in many areas around emission sources of PCDD/Fs and PCBs. On the other hand, PCDD/F and dioxin-like PCB levels in soil in rural areas, without a contamination source, are normally safe for food producing animals housed outdoors resulting in healthy food (e.g. meat, eggs, milk).For the majority of POPs (e.g. PBDEs, PFOS, PFOA, SCCP) no regulatory limits in soils exist.There is, therefore, an urgent need to develop appropriate and protective soil standards minimising human exposure from food producing animals housed outdoors. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to eliminate POPs pollution sources for soils and to control, secure and remediate contaminated sites and reservoirs, in order to reduce exposure and guarantee food safety.

This technique for setting guideline values differs from that currently used by regulatory agencies throughout the world. Data for benzene were evaluated from epidemiological studies on human populations (29 studies). Exposure durations were evaluated in terms of Long Term Exposure (LTE) and Lifetime Exposure. All data was reported as Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Levels (LOAEL) and converted into exposure doses using Average Daily Dose (ADD) and Lifetime Average Daily Dose (LADD). These values were plotted as a Toxicant Sensitivity Distribution (TSD) which was the cumulative probability of LOAEL-ADD and LOAEL-LADD. From the TSD plots, linear regression equations gave correlation coefficients (R2) ranging from 0.69 to 0.97 indicating normal distributions. Guideline Values (GVs) for LTE (8hr/day) and Lifetime (24hr/70yrs) exposure to benzene were calculated using data from human epidemiological studies as 5% level of cumulative probability (CP) of LOAEL–ADD and LOAEL–LADD from the cumulative probability distributions (CPD). The derived guideline values from the human epidemiological studies were 92 μg/kg/day for LTE and 3.4 μg/kg/day for lifetime exposure. GV for LTE is appropriate for occupational exposure and GV derived for lifetime exposure appropriate for the general population. The guideline value for occupational exposure limit was below all the guideline values developed by regulatory agencies. But the general population guideline is within the range of values formulated by European Union, ATSDR, EPAQS, USEPA and OEHHA for air quality for the general population. This is an alternative method which eliminates the application of safety factors and other sources of errors in deriving guideline values for benzene.