The livelihoods of poor people living in rural areas of Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) of Pakistan depend largely on irrigated agriculture. Water duties in IBIS are mainly calculated based on crop-specific evapotranspiration. Recent studies show that ignoring the spatial variability of factors affecting the crop water requirements can affect the crop production. The objective of the current study is thus to identify the factors which can affect the water duties in IBIS, map these factors by GIS, and then develop the irrigation response units (IRUs), an area representing the unique combinations of factors affecting the gross irrigation requirements (GIR). The Lower Chenab Canal (LCC) irrigation scheme, the largest irrigation scheme of the IBIS, is selected as a case. Groundwater quality, groundwater levels, soil salinity, soil texture, and crop types are identified as the main factors for IRUs. GIS along with gamma design software GS + was used to delineate the IRUs in the large irrigation scheme. This resulted in a total of 84 IRUs in the large irrigation scheme based on similar biophysical factors. This study provided the empathy of suitable tactics to increase water management and productivity in LCC. It will be conceivable to investigate a whole irrigation canal command in parts (considering the field-level variations) and to give definite tactics for management.

The prevalence and proliferation of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) has been identified as an emerging contaminant of concern and a crucial threat to public health worldwide. To determine the occurrence and distribution of ARGs in artificial agricultural irrigation systems, we designed eight sample sites of farmland drainage in the Hetao Irrigation District, Inner Mongolia, China. Results indicated that the distribution of ARGs in sub-drainage canals is influenced by the local urban area, agriculture, and animal husbandry structure. The blaTEM gene was predominant in the water samples (up to 8.98 ARG copies/16S rRNA genes). The average ARG abundance in drainage channel sampling sites was significantly higher than the influent water from the Yellow River, which means that the artificial agricultural irrigation system enhances the abundance of resistance genes in the study area. Moreover, the effluent water of the whole irrigation system presented a lower abundance of ARGs than the influent water. This demonstrates that the Wuliangsuhai watershed ecosystem plays an important role in regulating the abundance of ARGs in the area. In our study, the mobile gene elements correlated with trB, emrD, mexF, and vanC (P < 0.001) in the irrigation system. Additionally, different correlations exist between other special subtypes of ARGs. These findings provided deeper insights into mitigating the propagation of ARGs and the associated risks to public health.

Enhancement of water use efficiency (WUE) is considered highly important to cope with the water scarcity challenges in dry regions. Therefore, this study evaluated spatiotemporal characteristics of WUE and its related drivers in the Ω-shaped Region along the Yellow River aiming to provide decision support information for alleviating water shortages in this region. We employed the SBM-DEA (slacks-based measure-data envelopment analysis) model to calculate the WUE considering undesired outputs, analyze temporal and spatial variation based on GIS and statistical methods, and investigate the various factors that influence WUE based on the generalized method of moment (GMM) model. The results are as follows. (1) The WUE followed an increasing–decreasing-increasing trend, suggesting that the expanding agricultural and the second industrial structures are largely dominated by water-intensive activities which add further pressure on the water resources. (2) The spatial discrepancy of WUE among the cities is significant; however, the spatial pattern changes were stable during 2010 to 2019. (3) Analysis of influencing factors provides solutions for improving WUE in the Ω-shaped Region. Irrigation system and water conservancy infrastructure development and the acceleration of industrial transformation are necessary for improving the WUE in the Ω-shaped Region.

Two field experiments were conducted to evaluate six Salicornia species (Salicornia bigelovii Torr., S. europaea L., S. persica Gorgan ecotype, S. persica Urmia ecotype, S. sinus persica Bushehr ecotype, and S. persica Central Plateau ecotype) at different planting dates and densities under irrigation with Persian Gulf water. Evaluated planting dates were 14 November and 18 December 2016 and 16 January, 8 February, 8 March, and 28 March 2017. Examined planting densities included 13, 20, and 40 plant m⁻². Only S. bigelovii and S. europaea produced measurable yield in all planting dates. The highest dry weight (651.1 gm⁻²) was obtained in S. sinus persica (Bu) planted on 8 February. Dry weight of S. bigelovii, S. europaea, S. sinus persica Bushehr, S. persica Central Plateau, S. persica Gorgan, and S. persica Urmia planted on 8 March were 174.2, 220.7, 542.5, 240.9, 158.0, and 147.5 g m⁻², respectively. The ash contents of S. bigelovii, S. europaea, S. sinus persica Bushehr, S. persica Central Plateau, S. persica Gorgan, and S. persica Urmia were 46.3%, 45.0%, 49.6%, 49.6%, 50.0%, and 53.1%, respectively. Sodium and chloride contents of different Salicornia species varied from 13–15% and 16–17%, respectively. The oilseed content of S. bigelovii and S. sinus persica Bushehr was about 24.0% for both species. The highest and lowest dry weight, from the second experiment, were for S. sinus persica Bushehr and S. persica Central Plateau, respectively, in all planting density. The highest dry weight equal to 1336.2 gm⁻² was obtained for S. sinus persica Bushehr in 40 plant m⁻² density. Under such conditions, forage production potential of Salicornia is more achievable rather than seed production. Nevertheless, high ash content is a serious constraint to direct consumption by livestock; therefore, determining the nutritional value of Salicornia fodder requires further evaluations.

The objective of this study is to evaluate the water quality of the Lien Son irrigation system in Vietnam and identify the critical pollutants that affect the system’s water quality. Firstly, the water quality at fifteen locations distributed along the main Lien Son drainage and irrigation canals was monitored in the dry season (from January to March) for 3 consecutive years (2018, 2019, and 2020) to collect nine physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters. And then, principal component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) were applied to extract and identify the critical pollutants which helps to preliminarily detect the potential pollution sources to the irrigation system. Results of PCA and FA showed the principal groups of pollutants which had a significant influence on the water quality of the system. Sampling locations LS7 and LS8 had the heaviest pollution. The primary factors that influenced the pollution of the system were organic matter (COD and BOD₅), nutrients (N-NH[Formula: see text] and P-PO[Formula: see text]), sediment transport (turbidity and TSS), and coliform. These factors are usually associated with the sources of domestic wastewaters and agricultural runoff from the vicinity. This suggested that urgent actions should be taken to control domestic wastewaters and agricultural runoff from the vicinity so that they could not deteriorate the water quality of the system.

The photovoltaic (PV) for irrigation system is an emerging technology to harness the solar energy. The performance of the PV modules depends on the incident solar radiation, geographical location, and the surface temperature of the modules. The performance of the PV system needs to be monitored by manually or embedded controllers. The commercially available technologies for monitoring the system are costlier and need to be optimized. The Arduino controller is used to monitor the performance of the photovoltaic (PV) system in Coimbatore (11.016° N, 76.9558° E), Tamilnadu, India. The PV surface temperature is monitored and controlled by flowing the water above the module by setting the mean ambient temperature as a reference temperature 34 °C when the system exceeds the reference temperature. PV surface temperature is reduced up to 16°C thus improved the electrical efficiency by 17% compare to the reference module. The Arduino controller control the relay to switch on the motor to control the mass flow rate of the water at 0.0028kg/s. The various parameters are measured such as voltage, current, and solar radiation of the location and analyzed. The estimated cost of monitoring system and various sensor is 10$ which cost comparatively 50% lower than the other PV monitoring controllers. This method can be employed in the medium and large-scale irrigation system.

A novel system for organic waste stabilization and reuse, combined with production of nitrate-rich liquid fertilizer was developed by manure digestion followed by volatilization of ammonia-rich gas (originating in manure extract) and its nitrification and recovery. This approach has several advantages, including biowaste stabilization and high recovery (over 60%) of manure N mainly as nitrate which is a better N form for many plants as compared to ammonium as the sole fertilizer N. Moreover, the potential utilization of different wastes as N sources in organic horticulture is possible as well as removal of suspended particles and microorganisms (including pathogens) that might otherwise clog the irrigation system and pose health risks, respectively. In a pilot-scale study, the system yielded several hundred liters of nitrate-rich (ca. 11 g N L−1) liquid fertilizer using guano as substrate. In a fertilization experiment, lettuce fertigated with the nitrate-rich extract exhibited better growth and quality compared to the common organic practice of fertigation with guano extract. The resulting stabilized biowaste was estimated as “low-risk” according to current guidelines and may be used for liming or land application.

Climate change, conventional agricultural management practices, and increasing water scarcity pose a major threat to agricultural production and biodiversity as well as environmental sustainability. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is recognized as an efficient, sustainable, and feasible agricultural system that plays a vital role in addressing the potential impacts of climate change in Pakistan. First-hand information was collected from 450 farm households in 24 villages from Okara, Sahiwal, and Khanewal irrigation divisions, having various wheat-based cropping systems of Pakistan. This includes rice–wheat (RW), maize-wheat (MW), and cotton-wheat (CW) cropping systems in the Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) irrigation system. This study estimated and compared the sustainability and efficiency analysis of CSA and conventional agricultural practices. This study also estimated the impact of water-smart practices of the CSA, technical training, and groundwater quality on agricultural production by using production function and bootstrap truncated regression. The findings of this study revealed that adopters of CSA of the wheat-based cropping systems have higher economic benefits and improved resource use efficiencies compared to the conventional farmers. The findings of the study also revealed the increased efficiency of CSA adopters over other two systems in CW cropping system. The water-smart practices of CSA, access to credit, technical training, use of groundwater of varying quality, and other inputs also showed variations in the agricultural production and resource use efficiency. It has been concluded that farmers can earn more profit, save inputs (such as water), and increase their production by adopting water-smart practices of CSA. Hence, the government and other relevant institutions should devise and implement policies that adequately addressed the importance and enhance the use of water-smart practices of CSA in Punjab and beyond.

While governments and individuals strive to maintain the availability of high-quality water resources, many factors can “change the landscape” of water availability and quality, including drought, climate change, saltwater intrusion, aquifer depletion, population increases, and policy changes. Specialty crop producers, including nursery and greenhouse container operations, rely heavily on available high-quality water from surface and groundwater sources for crop production. Ideally, these growers should focus on increasing water application efficiency through proper construction and maintenance of irrigation systems, and timing of irrigation to minimize water and sediment runoff, which serve as the transport mechanism for agrichemical inputs and pathogens. Rainfall and irrigation runoff from specialty crop operations can contribute to impairment of groundwater and surface water resources both on-farm and into the surrounding environment. This review focuses on multiple facets of water use, reuse, and runoff in nursery and greenhouse production including current and future regulations, typical water contaminants in production runoff and available remediation technologies, and minimizing water loss and runoff (both on-site and off-site). Water filtration and treatment for the removal of sediment, pathogens, and agrichemicals are discussed, highlighting not only existing understanding but also knowledge gaps. Container-grown crop producers can either adopt research-based best management practices proactively to minimize the economic and environmental risk of limited access to high-quality water, be required to change by external factors such as regulations and fines, or adapt production practices over time as a result of changing climate conditions.