Production of chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora) in greenhouses often requires intensive pesticide use, which raises serious concerns over food safety and human health. This study investigated uptake, translocation and residue dissipation of typical fungicides (metalaxyl-M and fludioxonil) and insecticides (cyantraniliprole and thiamethoxam) in greenhouse chrysanthemum when applied in soils. Chrysanthemum plants could absorb these pesticides from soils via roots to various degrees, and bioconcentration factors (BCFLS) were positively correlated with lipophilicity (log Kₒw) of pesticides. Highly lipophilic fludioxonil (log Kₒw = 4.12) had the greatest BCFLS (2.96 ± 0.41 g g⁻¹), whereas hydrophilic thiamethoxam (log Kₒw = −0.13) had the lowest (0.09 ± 0.03 g g⁻¹). Translocation factors (TF) from roots to shoots followed the order of TFₗₑₐf > TFₛₜₑₘ > TFfₗₒwₑᵣ. Metalaxyl-M and cyantraniliprole with medium lipophilicity (log Kₒw of 1.71 and 2.02, respectively) and hydrophilic thiamethoxam showed relatively strong translocation potentials with TF values in the range of 0.29–0.81, 0.36–2.74 and 0.30–1.03, respectively. Dissipation kinetics in chrysanthemum flowers followed the first-order with a half-life of 21.7, 5.5, 10.0 or 8.2 days for metalaxyl-M, fludioxonil, cyantraniliprole and thiamethoxam, respectively. Final residues of these four pesticides, including clothianidin (a primary toxic metabolite of thiamethoxam), in all chrysanthemum flower samples were below the maximum residue limit (MRL) values 21 days after two soil applications each at the recommended dose (i.e., 3.2, 2.1, 4.3 and 4.3 kg ha⁻¹, respectively). However, when doubling the recommended dose, the metabolite clothianidin remained at concentrations greater than the MRL, despite that thiamethoxam concentration was lower than the MRL value. This study provided valuable insights on the uptake and residues of metalaxyl-M, fludioxonil, cyantraniliprole and thiamethoxam (including its metabolite clothianidin) in greenhouse chrysanthemum production, and could help better assess food safety risks of chrysanthemum contamination by parent pesticides and their metabolites.

The anaerobic digestion of food waste for energy recovery produces a nutrient-rich digestate which is a valuable source of crop available nitrogen (N). As with any ‘new’ material being recycled to agricultural land it is important to develop best management practices that maximise crop available N supply, whilst minimising emissions to the environment. In this study, ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions to air and nitrate (NO3−) leaching losses to water following digestate, compost and livestock manure applications to agricultural land were measured at 3 sites in England and Wales. Ammonia emissions were greater from applications of food-based digestate (c.40% of total N applied) than from livestock slurry (c.30% of total N applied) due to its higher ammonium-N content (mean 5.6 kg/t compared with 1–2 kg/t for slurry) and elevated pH (mean 8.3 compared with 7.7 for slurry). Whilst bandspreading was effective at reducing NH3 emissions from slurry compared with surface broadcasting it was not found to be an effective mitigation option for food-based digestate in this study. The majority of the NH3 losses occurred within 6 h of spreading highlighting the importance of rapid soil incorporation as a method for reducing NH3 emissions. Nitrous oxide losses from food-based digestates were low, with emission factors all less than the IPCC default value of 1% (mean 0.45± 0.15%). Overwinter NO3− leaching losses from food-based digestate were similar to those from pig slurry, but much greater than from pig farmyard manure or compost. Both gaseous N losses and NO3− leaching from green and green/food composts were low, indicating that in these terms compost can be considered as an ‘environmentally benign’ material. These findings have been used in the development of best practice guidelines which provide a framework for the responsible use of digestates and composts in agriculture.

The potential for storing additional C in U.S. Corn Belt soils – to offset rising atmospheric [CO2] – is large. Long-term cultivation has depleted substantial soil organic matter (SOM) stocks that once existed in the region's native ecosystems. In central Illinois, free-air CO2 enrichment technology was used to investigate the effects of elevated [CO2] on SOM pools in a conservation tilled corn–soybean rotation. After 5 and 6 y of CO2 enrichment, we investigated the distribution of C and N among soil fractions with varying ability to protect SOM from rapid decomposition. None of the isolated C or N pools, or bulk-soil C or N, was affected by CO2 treatment. However, the site has lost soil C and N, largely from unprotected pools, regardless of CO2 treatment since the experiment began. These findings suggest management practices have affected soil C and N stocks and dynamics more than the increased inputs from CO2-stimulated photosynthesis. Soil carbon from microaggregate-protected and unprotected fractions decreased in a conservation tilled corn–soybean rotation despite increases in primary production from exposure to atmospheric CO2 enrichment.

The urban landscape is comprised of many land uses, none more intensively managed than turfgrass; however, quantification of nutrient losses from specific land uses within urban watersheds, specifically golf courses is limited. Nitrate (NO3-N) and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) were measured on a golf course in Austin, TX, USA from April 1, 1998 to March 31, 2003. NO3-N and DRP concentrations measured in storm flow were significantly greater exiting the course compared to those entering the course. Significant differences were also measured in baseflow NO3-N concentrations. The measured loading from the course was 4.0 kg NO3-N ha 1 yr 1 (11% of applied) and 0.66 kg DRP ha 1 yr 1 (8% of applied). The resulting concentrations contributed by the course were 1.2 mg L 1 NO3-N and 0.2 mg L 1 DRP. At these levels, NO3-N poses minimal environmental risk. However, the DRP concentration is twice the recommended level to guard against eutrophication

In China, excessive phosphorus (P) application in protected vegetable fields has led to high legacy P stores. Soil amendment with alum or dolomite is one of many best management practices (BMPs) used to reduce P losses in calcareous soils. However, both the kinetics and mechanisms of P sorption and soil available P in amended soils are understudied. Herein, both aspects were looked at under controlled conditions. Firstly, a sorption study which coupled P concentrations with poorly-crystalline Al hydroxides and dolomite was conducted. Results from this batch experiment showed that P sorption on poorly-crystalline Al hydroxides was homogenous and occurred mainly via displacement of inner-sphere hydroxyl (Al–OH) instead of the formation of AlPO₄. However, the amount of sorbed P reached maximum sorption of 73.1 mg g⁻¹ and did not change with further increase in P concentration. It was observed that P adsorbed onto the dolomite surface at low P concentrations, whereas hydroxyl replacement and uneven cluster precipitation of Ca₃(PO₄)₂ occurred at high P concentrations. A second 90 day incubation experiment investigated changes to soil available P and sorption-desorption across variable rates of amendments (0–50 g kg⁻¹). Results showed that alum amendment at a rate of 50 g kg⁻¹ decreased soil CaCl₂–P and Olsen-P concentrations by 91.9% and 57.8%, respectively. However, Olsen-P increased when the dolomite rates were <20 g kg⁻¹. Phosphorus sorption-desorption of the amended soil showed alum had higher P sorption efficiency than dolomite at low addition rates (<10 g kg⁻¹). However, soil amended with high dolomite rates (>10 g kg⁻¹) could sorb more P in comparison with alum when P concentrations were increased. The P status of the amended soil was closely connected to the P sorption mechanisms on mineral amendments, soil P concentrations and soil properties.

Denitrification is considered as the dominant nitrogen (N) removing pathway, however, anaerobic oxidation of ammonium (anammox) also plays a significant part in N loss in agricultural ecosystems. Large N inputs into agricultural soils may stimulate the growth of anammox bacteria, resulting in high activity and diversity of anammox bacteria and subsequent more N loss. In some specific niches, like oxic-anoxic interface, three processes, nitrification, anammox and denitrification couple with each other, and significant anammox reaction could be observed. Soil parameters like pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), and substrate concentrations impact the anammox process. Here we summarize the current knowledge on anammox activity and contribution to N loss, abundance and diversity of anammox bacteria, factors affecting anammox, and the relationship between anammox and other N loss pathways in agricultural soils. We propose that more investigations are required for (1) the role of anammox to N loss with different agricultural management strategies; (2) microscale research on the coupling of nitrification-anammox-denitrification, that might be a very complex process but ideal model for further studies responsible for N cycling in terrestrial ecosystems; and (3) new methods to estimate differential contributions of anammox, codenitrification and denitrification in total N loss in agricultural ecosystems. New research will provide much needed information to quantify the contribution of anammox in N loss from soils at landscape, ecosystem and global scales.

During the last 50 years nitrate concentrations in Buttermere and Wastwater (Cumbria, UK) have risen significantly, by 70 and 100%, respectively. By estimating contemporary nitrate fluxes in the lakes' catchments and in sub-catchments and comparing them with the fractional areas of different soil types, it is deduced that the surface water nitrate is derived almost entirely from organic-rich ranker soils that have a limited ability to retain atmospherically-deposited nitrogen. Little or no nitrate leaches from the other major soil type, a brown podzol, despite it having a lower C:N ratio (12.0 g g-1) than the ranker (17.0 g g-1), nor is there much contribution from the small areas of improved (chemically fertilised) grassland within the catchments. Although some nitrate leaching is occurring, total N losses are appreciably smaller than atmospheric inputs, so the catchment soils are currently accumulating between 3 and 4 g N m-2 a-1. Increases in lakewater nitrate concentrations over 50 years are due to the limited ability of ranker soils to retain atmospherically-deposited nitrogen.

Manure is a valuable source of plant nutrients; however, continuous application to soils may lead to accumulation of phosphorus (P), increasing the risk of P loss into waterways triggering freshwater eutrophication. This review paper summarizes and critically evaluates relevant research findings published within the last 5 years on manure P mobility in soils and management strategies to mitigate losses identifying future research needs. Past and recent research evidence on manure P mobilization and losses from soils have yielded inconsistent and often confounding results, because of the interactive effects of source factors and the existence of concurrent transport pathways. Although far from being conclusive, a few general trends are worth noting; P losses were greater with (a) increasing soluble P applied with manure, (b) vulnerable soils with limited P sorption capacity and/or susceptible to preferential flow/erosion, (c) conditions conducive to P release and transport, and (d) reduced soil-manure P interaction following application. Effective mitigating strategies included (a) generating low-P manure, (b) processing manure to reduce total and/or soluble P, and (c) adopting best management practices (BMPs) during and post-manure application. Future research should focus on a better understanding of the interactive effects of source factors on short- and long-term manure P loss via different transport pathways. Existing mitigation efforts and new directions should focus on reducing P buildup in soil by employing a combination of strategies during generation, processing, and application of manure, coupled with site- and time-specific BMPs selected based on the dominant pathway of P loss.

Nitrogen (N) is deficient in more than 90% of soils of Pakistan, mainly because of low organic matter contents. The use of nitrogenous fertilizers is a common practice for sustainable and profitable crop yields. A significant portion of added fertilizers is lost through volatilization, leaching, and denitrification. The low use efficiency of these fertilizers in our climate is a serious concern because of high costs and environmental issues. The present study evaluated the novel synergistic effect of urease and nitrification inhibitors such as ammonium thiosulfate (ATS) and 2-Chloro-6-(trichloromethyl)pyridine (nitrapyrin) to reduce the urea hydrolysis in the soil of three cities of Pakistan, i.e., Faisalabad, Gujranwala, and Sheikhupura, to manage the ammonia as well as N loss. Three different combinations, such as A1, A2, and A3 of both inhibitors, were prepared with varying ratios of 1:1, 0.25:0.75, and 0.75:0.25, respectively. Results showed that the minimum urea hydrolysis of about 2.41, 2.79, and 4.68 IU/g soil was observed with A1 combination after 4th-day observation with the rate of 0.50% concentration for Faisalabad, Gujranwala, and Sheikhupura, respectively. In addition, results showed better urease activity at a pH value of 6.50, incubation time of 30 min, and temperature of 37 °C for all A1, A2, and A3 combinations with 0.50% concentration. Moreover, inhibitor-treated urea showed the maximum plant height of 111, 101, and 101 cm, and root length of 15, 11, and 5 cm, number of tillers of 14, 16, and 19 per panicle, and number of spikes of 37, 21, and 38 per panicle with A1, A2, and A3 combination at 0.50% dose respectively in Faisalabad soil. Overall, it is concluded that 0.50% inhibitor concentration showed the much impressive urease inhibition results followed by 0.25 and 0.10%. However, the application of inhibitors was a good practice to reduce the N loss from soil.

A set of indices was developed in order to classify the vulnerability of agricultural land to water and nitrogen losses (LOS), setting a basis for the integrated water resources management in agricultural systems. To calibrate the indices using multiple regression analysis, the simulation results of Groundwater Loading Effects of Agricultural Management Systems (GLEAMS) model for combinations of different soil properties, topography, and climatic conditions of a reference field crop were used as “observed values.” GLEAMS quantified (1) the annual losses of the percolated water beneath the root zone, (2) the annual losses of the surface runoff, (3) the annual losses of the nitrogen leaching beneath the root zone, and (4) the annual losses of nitrogen through the surface runoff, which were used to calibrate the following indices LOSW-P, LOSW-R, LOSN-PN, and LOSN-RN, respectively. All the simulations to gain the LOS indices were carried out for the same reference field crop, the same nitrogen fertilization, and the same irrigation practice, in order to obtain the intrinsic vulnerability of agricultural land to water and nitrogen losses. The LOS indices were also combined to derive nitrogen concentrations in the percolated and in the runoff water. Finally, the connection of LOS indices with the groundwater was performed using an additional equation, which determines the minimum transit time of the percolated water to reach the groundwater table.