INTRODUCTION: To use biomarkers in monitoring programmes, potential confounding factors must be considered. In the clam Scrobicularia plana, the influence of size and salinity on biomarkers at different levels of biological organisation has been examined. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Biochemical (glutathione-S-transferase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetylcholinesterase, digestive enzymes, metallothionein), physiological (energy reserves) and behavioural (burrowing) responses were compared (a) in specimens of different sizes from the Loire estuary; (b) in specimens from the Belon estuary at two sites with salinities of 30.1 or 11.5. RESULTS: Amongst the biomarkers able to reveal pollution effects, several are influenced by the size of the clams (Ag, Cu, Ni and glycogen concentrations, GST and AChE activities, condition indices). Salinity differences induced variations of the same order of magnitude (GST, AChE) or even higher (lactate dehydrogenase, digestive enzymes in the crystalline style) than contamination-induced variations. In burrowing tests, the number of burrowed specimens was similar at both salinities after an experiment time <3 h. CONCLUSIONS: Size is a factor necessarily but easily controlled. Because the weight may be different in clams of identical size, correction factors may be used to minimise the influence of weight changes on biomarkers. A correction factor taking into account salinity levels can also be used. The protein concentrations in the clams did not differ with salinity, a very favourable outcome since all enzyme activities are classically expressed by reference to total protein concentrations. For burrowing tests, the number of burrowed specimens at a particular time is an endpoint that is preferable to measures of burrowing speed.

Introduction Chlorimuron-ethyl has been widely used for the soybean production of China, but less information is available on the possible risk of long-term application of this herbicide. Materials and methods In this paper, soil samples were collected from the plots having been received 30 g active component of chlorimuron-ethyl/ha per year for 5 and 10 years in a continuously cropped soybean field of Northeast China, with their microbial community analyzed by plate counting, PCR-DGGE, and cloning library. Chlorimuron-ethyl had a higher accumulation in test soils, and the accumulation decreased the CFU of soil bacteria and increased the CFU of soil fungi significantly. The CFU of soil actinomycetes only had a significant decrease in the plot having been received chlorimuron-ethyl for 10 years. Results and discussion Under the long-term stress of chlorimuron-ethyl, the diversity and evenness of soil microbial community decreased, and more importantly, some bacterial and fungal species that possibly benefited soybean's growth, e.g., Acidobacteria, γ-proteobacteria, Cortinarius violaceu, Acarospora smaragdula, and Xerocomus chrysenteron decreased or demised, while some species that could induce the obstacle of soybean's continuous cropping, e.g., Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, and Phytophthora sojae, increased or appeared. Some actinomycetes were inhibited having negative effects on the antagonism between soil microbes. It is considered that due to the longer half-life of chlorimuron-ethyl in soil and the resistance and resilience of soil microbes to short-term environmental stress, long-term in situ investigation rather than laboratory microcosm test or short-term field experiment would be more appropriate to the accurate assessment of the ecological risk of long-term chlorimuron-ethyl application. Further studies should be made on the application mode and duration of chlorimuron-ethyl to reduce the possible ecological risk of applying this herbicide on continuously cropped soybean field.

BACKGROUND: Soil samples from remote Alpine areas were analyzed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated biphenyls by high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution gas spectrometry. Additionally, the EROD micro-assay and a genetically modified yeast estrogen bioassay were carried out to determine persistent aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AhR) and estrogen receptors (ER) agonists, respectively. Regarding the AhR agonists, the toxicity equivalents of analytical and EROD determined values were compared, targeting both altitude of samples and their soil organic content. The ratio between bioassay derived equivalents and analytical determinations suggested no significant contribution of unknown AhR inducers in these sampling sites and some antagonism in soils with relatively high PCB loading. More CYP1A1 expression was induced at the highest sites or about 1400–1500 m a.s.l. along the altitude profiles. Surprisingly, no clear tendencies with the soil organic content were found for dioxin-like compounds. Mean values obtained in the present study were for ER agonists, 0.37 ± 0.12 pg 17ß-estradiol EQ g⁻¹ dry soil and 6.1 ± 4.2 pg TCDD-EQ g⁻¹ dry soil for AhR agonists. CONCLUSION: Low bioassay responses with a higher relative amount of AhR inducers than ER disrupters were detected, indicating the higher abundance of persistent dioxin-like than estrogen-like compounds in these forested mountainous areas.

Purpose Climate warming can change the geographic distribution and intensity of the transmission of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. The transmitted parasites usually benefit from increased temperatures as both their reproduction and development are accelerated. Lower Saxony (northwestern Germany) has been a malaria region until the 1950s, and the vector species are still present throughout Germany. This gave reason to investigate whether a new autochthonous transmission could take place if the malaria pathogen was introduced again in Germany. Materials and methods The spatial distribution of potential temperature-driven malaria transmissions was investigated using the basic reproduction rate (R ₀) to model and geostatistically map areas at risk of an outbreak of tertian malaria based on measured (1961-1990, 1991-2007) and predicted (1991-2020, 2021-2050, 2051-2080) monthly mean air temperature data. Results From the computations, maps were derived showing that during the period 1961-1990, the seasonal transmission gate ranges from 0 to 4 months and then expands up to 5 months in the period 1991-2007. For the projection of future trends, the regional climate models REMO and WettReg were used each with two different scenarios (A1B and B1). Both modelling approaches resulted in prolonged seasonal transmission gates in the future, enabling malaria transmissions up to 6 months in the climate reference period 2051-2080 (REMO, scenario A1B). Discussion The presented risk prognosis is based on the R ₀ formula for the estimation of the reproduction of the malaria pathogen Plasmodium vivax. The presented model focuses on mean air temperatures; thus, other driving factors like the distribution of water bodies (breeding habitats) or population density are not integrated. Nevertheless, the modelling presented in this study can help identify areas at risk and initiate prevention. The described findings may also help in the investigation and assessment of related diseases caused by temperature-dependent vectors and pathogens, including those being dangerous for livestock as well, e.g. insect-borne bluetongue disease transmitted by culicoids.

INTRODUCTION: In this study, we provide strategies for detecting and quantifying the structural isomers of polyfluorinated di- and tri-alkyl surfactants (PFAS) by mass spectrometry (MS). We specifically investigate polyfluorinated dialkylated phosphate ester surfactants (x:2/y:2 diPAPS, (F(CF2) x CH2CH2O-P(O)(O)−-OCH2CH2(CF2) y F)) and their thioether analogues (x:2/y:2 S-diPAPS, F(CF2) x CH2CH2SCH2-C[CH2O)2P(O)(O)−]-CH2SCH2CH2(CF2) y F), which are used for industrial applications, such as oil- and water-repellent coatings on paper and board. DiPAPS have been found in human blood and are metabolised to the persistent perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCA) in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A microwave popcorn bag extract was analysed by ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to a negative electrospray ionisation-quadrupole time-of-flight MS. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The extract contained S-diPAPS, diPAPS and trialkylated (triPAPS) impurities. TriPAPS were also present in industrial and synthetic diPAPS standards, and were verified with an 8:2/8:2/8:2 triPAPS standard. The eight elemental compositions (m/z’s) of diPAPS in the extract represent 19 precursor ion structures, and the six S-diPAPS m/z’s represent at least 13 structures. The diPAPS had [M-H]− precursor ions of m/z 789, 889,…1,489 and the S-diPAPS of m/z 921, 1,021,…1,421, corresponding to fluorinated chains from C6–18. Each m/z appeared as one to three chromatographic peaks of structural isomers, where, e.g. m/z 1,189 was present as 10:2/10:2, 8:2/12:2 and 6:2/14:2 diPAPS. The isomers formed different products ions, thus only half of the m/z 1,189 diPAPS concentration was measured with one precursor ion > product ion transition. CONCLUSION: In general, knowledge about structural isomers of poly-alkylated PFAS is needed for the estimation of types and amounts of perfluorinated degradation products, such as PFCA from diPAPS.

Background and purpose Surfactant-assisted soil washing and photocatalysis are well-known remediation processes of environmental concern. The application of photocatalysis to treat soil washing extracts containing 4-methylphenol, 4-ethylphenol and 4-tert-butylphenol in the presence of nonionic (C₁₂E₈ and C₁₂E₂₃) and anionic (SDS) surfactants and some of their binary mixtures was investigated in this work by studying the pollutants degradation in the presence of TiO₂ dispersions irradiated with simulated solar light. Materials and methods Clean soil samples were spiked with the investigated alkylphenols. Aqueous solutions of the chosen surfactants were placed in contact for some hours with the spiked soil samples in a rotatory mixer. The pollutants recoveries were evaluated via HPLC analysis. Photocatalytic experiments were performed in solarbox on aqueous solutions and on aqueous surfactant solutions containing the pollutants. Results The pollutants removal from the soil was proven effective using the examined surfactant solutions. The photocatalytic treatment of the wastes was faster using Brij 35, but also SDS and C₁₂E₈-SDS mixtures can be applied. After 2-5 h the complete pollutants abatement was obtained, depending on the surfactant chosen and on the amount of TiO₂ employed. On the contrary, the treatment of wastes containing C₁₂E₈ was an extremely slow process. Conclusions The photocatalytic approach can be applied to remove the examined aromatic pollutants from the washing wastes, confirming the viable coupling between this advanced oxidation method and the surfactant-based soil remediation treatments. Surfactant adsorption onto TiO₂ and micelles concentration play a dominant role.

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE: Seed treatments are widely used on cereals and other annual crops throughout Europe. Most of the formulated pesticide is found on the outside of the seed, the husk. Risk assessments of seed treatments are especially needed for granivorous mice living in the agricultural landscape e.g. for registration using the guidance for risk assessment for birds and mammals (EFSA 2009). The dehusking of seeds before consumption is a known behaviour of these mammals, but so far, no quantitative data on the reduction of exposure of seed treatments by dehusking were published. Therefore, we aimed at providing a first quantitative estimate of this behaviour-related exposure reduction for the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) with different seed types. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We evaluated the efficiency of dehusking behaviour of 20 wood mice captured in the wild for four different seeds (wheat, barley, maize and sunflower). One experimental setup used a fungicide seed treatment where the remaining seed husks of consumed seeds were analysed with a HPLC-MS/MS technique. In the second setup, we measured generic pigment present in a blank seed treatment formulation and determined the leftover pigment in the husks with a photometric technique. RESULTS: The exposure reduction was similar for the fungicide and the pigment design where the same seed types were studied. We could demonstrate exposure reductions ranging from around 60% for cereals to almost 100% for sunflower seeds as a result of the dehusking behaviour. DISCUSSION: Since exposure reduction was similar in both approaches, working with pigments would be a generic way to estimate the impact of dehusking behaviour on seed treatment exposure. This behaviour can result in a substantial exposure reduction and should, therefore, be considered in a seed-type specific way in the risk assessment of pesticide seed treatments. CONCLUSIONS: It is proposed to include a seed-specific dehusking factor in the calculations of estimated theoretical exposure of seed treatments for granivorous mice. The approach of accounting for a dehusking-related exposure reduction by field relevant wild mammal species seems a more promising way to advance the risk assessment instead of using generic species and neglecting behavioural traits. The pigment approach could be used to gather data for exposure reduction for other species and seed types. Its advantage is that it is harmless to the test species and comparatively cheap since no chemical analysis is involved. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: Seed treatments are used for most of the cereal crops grown in Europe today. Their advantages usually include a lower application rate and the reduction of drift compared to a conventional spraying regime. However, there is a potential risk especially for granivorous mice, and its assessment is challenging in case of a high residue concentration on the dressed seeds. The concept of a dehusking factor in the risk assessment scheme for seed treatments for granivorous mice is a valid approach to account for the behavioural exposure reduction, and generic data could be easily generated also for other wild mammal species and other seed types, possibly analysing the pigment in commercial seed treatment formulations.

INTRODUCTION: A greenhouse experiment was conducted to determine if Cucurbita pepo ssp. pepo (pumpkin) root exudates could increase the uptake of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) into plants. Contaminated soil was pre-treated with pumpkin root exudates by first growing pumpkins in the soil. Plants (pumpkins and weeds) were grown in the pre-treated (root exudate group) and non-treated (control group) contaminated soils. Seeds from five weed species collected from two contaminated sites were germinated in sufficient quantities (n ≥ 6) for three seedlings to be planted in two groups. DISCUSSION: Plants from both the control group and the root exudate group extracted a combined total of ∼1.2% PCBs from soil. Differences in root concentrations between groups were observed for Bidens cernua (beggar’s tick) and in total PCBs extracted into the roots for pumpkins. This is the first report of significant changes in the PCB phytoextraction ability of multiple plant species due to the presence of root exudates. In addition, slight differences were also observed for root and shoot concentrations and extractions by several other species, though these were not statistically different at α = 0.05. While the mechanism of phytoextraction is still unknown, this study indicates that the root exudates of C. pepo ssp. pepo can affect the uptake and transport of contaminants within specific plant species.

INTRODUCTION: It is predicted that demand for electricity in Islamic Republic of Iran will continue to increase dramatically in the future due to the rapid pace of economic development leading to construction of new power plants. At the present time, most of electricity is generated by burning fossil fuels which result in emission of great deal of pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG) such as SO₂, NOₓ, and CO₂. The power industry is the largest contributor to these emissions. Due to minimal emission of GHG by renewable and nuclear power plants, they are most suitable replacements for the fossil-fueled power plants. However, the nuclear power plants are more suitable than renewable power plants in providing baseload electricity. The Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant, the only nuclear power plant of Iran, is expected to start operation in 2010. This paper attempts to interpret the role of Bushehr nuclear power plant (BNPP) in CO₂ emission trend of power plant sector in Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In order to calculate CO₂ emissions from power plants, National CO₂ coefficients have been used. The National CO₂ emission coefficients are according to different fuels (natural gas, fuels gas, fuel oil). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: By operating Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in 2010, nominal capacity of electricity generation in Iran will increase by about 1,000 MW, which increases the electricity generation by almost 7,000 MWh/year (it is calculated according to availability factor and nominal capacity of BNPP). CONCLUSIONS: Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant will decrease the CO₂ emission in Iran power sector, by about 3% in 2010.

PURPOSE: Heterocyclic aromatic compounds containing nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen heteroatoms (NSO-HET) have been detected in air, soil, marine, and freshwater systems. However, only few publications are available investigating NSO-HET using in vitro bioassays. To support better characterization of environmental samples, selected NSO-HET were screened for dioxin-like activity in two bioassays. METHODS: The present study focuses on the identification and quantification of dioxin-like effects of 12 NSO-HET using the DR-CALUX assay, and the 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) assay with the permanent fish liver cell line RTL-W1. Changes of the total medium compound concentrations during the test procedure due to, e.g., sorption or volatilization were quantified using GC/MS. RESULTS: The NSO-HET benzofuran, 2,3-dimethylbenzofuran, dibenzofuran, dibenzothiophen, acridine, xanthene, and carbazole caused a response in the DR-CALUX assay. Only benzofuran and 2,3-dimethylbenzofuran were also positive in the EROD assay. All other compounds were inactive in the EROD assay. Relative potency (REP) values ranged from (2.80 ± 1.32) · 10−8 to (3.26 ± 2.03) · 10−6 in the DR-CALUX and from (3.26 ± 0.91) · 10−7 to (4.87 ± 1.97) · 10−7 in the EROD assay. CONCLUSIONS: The REP values were comparable to those of larger polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, e.g., fluoranthene and pyrene. Thus, and because of the ubiquitous distribution of heterocyclic aromatic compounds in the environment, the provided data will further facilitate the bioanalytical and analytical characterization of environmental samples towards these toxicants.