GOAL, SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: This paper is a part of the research work on ‘Integrated treatment of industrial wastes towards prevention of regional water resources contamination — INTREAT’ the project. It addresses the environmental pollution problems associated with solid and liquid waste/effluents produced by sulfide ore mining and metallurgical activities in the Copper Mining and Smelting Complex Bor (RTB-BOR), Serbia. However, since the minimum solubility for the different metals usually found in the polluted water occurs at different pH values and the hydroxide precipitates are amphoteric in nature, selective removal of mixed metals could be achieved as the multiple stage precipitation. For this reason, acid mine water had to be treated in multiple stages in a continuous precipitation system-cascade line reactor. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All experiments were performed using synthetic metal-bearing effluent with chemical a composition similar to the effluent from open pit, Copper Mining and Smelting Complex Bor (RTB-BOR). That effluent is characterized by low pH (1.78) due to the content of sulfuric acid and heavy metals, such as Cu, Fe, Ni, Mn, Zn with concentrations of 76.680, 26.130, 0.113, 11.490, 1.020 mg/dm³, respectively. The cascade line reactor is equipped with the following components: for feeding of effluents, for injection of the precipitation agent, for pH measurements and control, and for removal of the process gases. The precipitation agent was 1M NaOH. In each of the three reactors, a changing of pH and temperature was observed. In order to verify efficiency of heavy metals removal, chemical analyses of samples taken at different pH was done using AES-ICP. RESULTS: Consumption of NaOH in reactors was 370 cm³, 40 cm³ and 80 cm³, respectively. Total time of the experiment was 4 h including feeding of the first reactor. The time necessary to achieve the defined pH value was 25 min for the first reactor and 13 min for both second and third reactors. Taking into account the complete process in the cascade line reactor, the difference between maximum and minimum temperature was as low as 6°C. The quantity of solid residue in reactors respectively was 0.62 g, 2.05 g and 3.91 g. In the case of copper, minimum achieved concentration was 0.62 mg/dm³ at pH = 10.4. At pH = 4.50 content of iron has rapidly decreased to < 0.1 mg/dm³ and maintained constant at all higher pH values. That means that precipitation has already ended at pH=4.5 and maximum efficiency of iron removal was 99.53%. The concentration of manganese was minimum at pH value of 11.0. Minimum obtained concentration of Zn was 2.18 mg/dm³ at a pH value of 11. If pH value is higher than 11, Zn can be re-dissolved. The maximum efficiency of Ni removal reached 76.30% at a pH value of 10.4. DISCUSSION: Obtained results show that efficiency of copper, iron and manganese removal is very satisfactory (higher than 90%). The obtained efficiency of Zn and Ni removal is lower (72.30% and 76.31%, respectively). The treated effluent met discharge water standard according to The Council Directive 76/464/EEC on pollution caused by certain dangerous substances into the aquatic environment of the Community. Maximum changing of temperature during the whole process was 6°C. CONCLUSION: This technology, which was based on inducing chemical precipitation of heavy metals is viable for selective removal of heavy metals from metal-bearing effluents in three reactor systems in a cascade line. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: The worldwide increasing concern for the environment and guidelines regarding effluent discharge make their treatment necessary for safe discharge in water receivers. In the case where the effluents contain valuable metals, there is also an additional economic interest to recover these metals and to recycle them as secondary raw materials in different production routes.

BACKGROUND: There has been an increasing concern about the treatment and disposal of contaminated sediment from dredged river, harbor or estuary due to the accumulated toxic organics such as dioxins and inorganics particularly heavy metals like Cr, Pb, Zn, Cu, Hg and Cd. However, considering the huge amount of materials and financial costs involved, any candidate technology must ultimately result to reusable residual by-products. This can only be made possible if the toxic pollutants are removed or stabilized in the raw sediment and then fed back into the materials cycle. Currently, we are developing a pyrolysis process for the commercial-scale cleanup of dioxins and heavy metal-contaminated river sediment to yield reusable char for various economical applications. In this connection, this paper describes our preliminary investigation into the extent of dioxins and heavy metal volatilization from actual contaminated sediment. The stabilization of certain metallic species particularly Cr ions was studied.METHODS: Laboratory scale pyrolysis experiments were conducted using a special horizontal lab-scale pyrolyzer. Sediment samples from Shanghai Suzhou Creek and Tagonoura Harbor were pyrolyzed in the reactor under nitrogen gas at 800°C and different retention times of 30, 60 and 90 min. A constant heating rate of 10°C min-1 was employed. The pyrolysis gas was first allowed to pass through a cold trap to condense the tar. Uncondensed gases were then channeled through a column containing an adsorbent (XAD-2 Resin) for dioxins. Heavy metal concentrations in the initial and final sediment residues were analyzed by ICP (Nippon Jarrel-Ash) following their acid and alkali (for Cr6+) digestion. Dioxins content of the pyrolysis char, tar, and exhaust gases in the dioxin adsorbent were also determined. For comparative purpose, thermal treatment under air flow was conducted.RESULTS: The data for the removal of heavy metals from Suzhou Creek sediment showed very significant reductions in Pb, Zn and Cr6+ content of the sediment at this condition. Percentage removals were 42.4%, 60.8% and 42.2%, respectively. The disappearance of Cr6+ was due to reduction reactions rather than volatilization since the total Cr content remained almost unchanged. Other heavy metals such as Cu, Fe and Ni showed very minimal reductions. Nonetheless, Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) tests confirmed that these residual heavy metals were rather stable in the pyrolysis char. Reduction of toxic Cr6+ at 42.2% has also been achieved by pyrolysis (with N2) as opposed to the more than 580 % increase in Cr6+ observed during thermal oxidation (with air).DISCUSSION: Pyrolysis also remove toxic organics particularly dioxins from the sediment. For the total dioxins, removal percentage of 99.9999% was achieved even at the lowest retention time of 30 min. Almost all polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxine (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-furans (PCDFs) were removed at any retention time. The TEQs detected from the solid residues were mainly contributed by dioxin-like PCBs, yet these were present in relatively trace quantities. At the shortest retention time of 30 min, only 0.000085 pg-TEQ g-1 of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was detected in the pyrolysis char. Furthermore, the residual PCBs have very low toxicity ratings and none of the highly toxic PCBs, which were initially present in the sediment such as 3,3',4,4',5-PeCB and 3,3',4,4'5,5'-HxCB, were detected in the char. Results further confirmed that most of the dioxins that were removed were transferred to the gas phase so that volatilization may be considered as the main mechanism for their removal.CONCLUSION: Some heavy metals particularly Pb and Zn can be volatilized under N2 pyrolysis at 800oC. Pyrolysis also prevented the formation of more toxic Cr6+ ions and at the same time resulted to its reduction by around 42.2% contrast to the 580% increase during thermal oxidation. PCDDs and PCDFs have been removed and were not formed in the solid products over the retention time range of 30-90 min at 800°C. Dioxin-like PCBs mostly remained and a retention time of 30 min was found sufficient for its maximum removal. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVE: . With the above results, a temperature of 800oC at a retention time of 30 min is sufficient for the removal of total dioxins and some heavy metals by volatilization. It is however necessary to destroy the dioxins as well as recover heavy metals in the gas phase. Stability of remaining heavy metals in the char also needs to be confirmed by leaching tests. These are the major concerns, which we are currently evaluating to establish the feasibility of our proposed large scale pyrolysis system for sediment treatment.

GOAL, SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: Fragrance preparations or perfumes are used in an increasing variety of applications, as for example washing, cleansing, personal care products, consumer goods or in applications to modify indoor air. However, up to now, little is known to the general or scientific public about their chemical identity and the use pattern of single substances, not even for high production volume chemicals. Some toxicological data are published for a comparatively small number of substances with a focus on sensitisation and dermal effects, while other effects are neglected. Information on ecotoxicity and environmental fate are rare, especially for long-term exposure. Data for a detailed hazard and risk analysis are available in exceptional cases only. According to the current legal situation, fragrance industry is self-regulated, which means that pre-market risk evaluation is not required for most fragrances. Odour and the ability to smell play a major role for wildlife for all taxonomic groups. Reproductive and social behaviour, defence, communication and orientation depend on volatile compounds which can be identical to those used in fragrance preparations. Our interdisciplinary approach leads to the question of whether and, if so, to what extent anthropogenic fragrances may influence life and reproduction of organisms in the environment. MAIN FEATURES: Information from literature on use, exposure and biological effects was combined to analyse the state of knowledge. Following an overview of the amounts of fragrances used in different consumer products and their release into the environment, the roles of odours in nature are shown for a selection of compounds. Existing regulation was analysed to describe the data basis for environmental risk evaluation. Finally, recommendations for further action are derived from these findings. RESULTS: Three main results were elaborated: First, fragrance substances are continuously discharged in large amounts into the environment, especially via the waste water. Second, there are some indications of negative effects on human health or the environment, although the data basis is very thin due to the self regulation of the fragrance industry and the regulatory situation of fragrance substances. Third, many odoriferous substances used by man are identical to those which are signal substances of environmental organisms at very low concentrations, thus giving rise to specific mode of actions in the ecosystem. RECOMMENDATION: For the adequate risk assessments of fragrances, test results on their unspecific as well as their specific effects as signal substances are needed. This would imply prioritisation methods and development of useful test methods for specific endpoints for appropriate risk assessments. Before a comprehensive testing and evaluation of results has been finished, a minimization of exposure should be envisaged. Eco-labelling of products containing acceptable fragrance ingredients could be a first step and provide consumers with the respective information. Transparency concerning the fragrance ingredients used and their biological potency will help to build up confidence between producers and consumers. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: The interdisciplinary approach, bringing together chemical, biological, toxicological and ecotoxicological data with information provided by manufacturers and with legal and consumer aspects, offers new insights into the field of fragrance substances used in consumer products. The amounts and application fields of fragrance substances increases while fate and effects in the environment are hardly known. The current legal situation is not suited to elucidate the effects of fragrances on human health and the environment sufficiently, especially as it was shown that fragrances may play a considerable role in the ecosystem on the behaviour of organisms. According to the precautionary principle, the lack of knowledge should best be tackled by reducing exposure, especially for compounds such as fragrance substances where no ethical reasons object a substitution by less hazardous chemicals.

GOAL, SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: Reducing occupant exposure to indoor mold is the goal of this research, through the efficacy testing of antimicrobial cleaners. Often mold contaminated building materials are not properly removed, but instead surface cleaners are applied in an attempt to alleviate the problem. The efficacy of antimicrobial cleaners to remove, eliminate or control mold growth on surfaces can easily be tested on non-porous surfaces. However, the testing of antimicrobial cleaner efficacy on porous surfaces, such as those found in the indoor environment such as gypsum board can be more complicated and prone to incorrect conclusions regarding residual organisms. The mold Stachybotrys chartarum has been found to be associated with idiopathic pulmonary hemorrhage in infants and has been studied for toxin production and its occurrence in water damaged buildings. Growth of S. chartarum on building materials such as gypsum wallboard has been frequently documented. METHODS: Research to control S. chartarum growth using 13 separate antimicrobial cleaners on contaminated gypsum wallboard has been performed in laboratory testing. Popular brands of cleaning products were tested by following directions printed on the product packaging. RESULTS: A variety of gypsum wallboard surfaces were used to test these cleaning products at high relative humidity. The results indicate differences in antimicrobial efficacy for the six month period of testing. DISCUSSION: Results for the six types of GWB surfaces varied extensively. However, three cleaning products exhibited significantly better results than others. Lysol All-Purpose Cleaner-Orange Breeze (full strength) demonstrated results which ranked among the best in five of the six surfaces tested. Both Borax and Orange Glo Multipurpose Degreaser demonstrated results which ranked among the best in four of the six surfaces tested. CONCLUSIONS: The best antimicrobial cleaner to choose is often dependent on the type of surface to be cleaned of S. chartarum contamination. For Plain GWB, no paint, the best cleaners were Borax, Lysol All-Purpose Cleaner-Orange Breeze (full strength), Orange Glo Multipurpose Degreaser, and Fantastik Orange Action. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: These results are not meant to endorse the incomplete removal of mold contaminated building materials. However, it is recognized that complete removal may not always be possible and solutions to control mold regrowth may contribute to reduced occupant exposure. Current recommendations of removal and replacement of porous building materials should be followed. It is not the intension of this discussion to endorse any product. Reporting on the performance of these products under the stated conditions was and remains the only purpose.

GOAL, SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: One of the burning problems of our industrial society is the high consumption of water and the high demand for clean drinking water. Numerous approaches have been taken to reduce water consumption, but in the long run it seems only possible to recycle waste water into high quality water. It seems timely to discuss alternative water remediation technologies that are fit for industrial as well as less developed countries to ensure a high quality of drinking water throughout Europe. MAIN FEATURES: The present paper discusses a range of phytoremediation technologies to be applied in a modular approach to integrate and improve the performance of existing wastewater treatment, especially towards the emerging micro pollutants, i.e. organic chemicals and pharmaceuticals. This topic is of global relevance for the EU. RESULTS: Existing technologies for waste water treatment do not sufficiently address increasing pollution situation, especially with the growing use of organic pollutants in the private household and health sector. Although some crude chemical approaches exist, such as advanced oxidation steps, most waste water treatment plants will not be able to adopt them. The same is true for membrane technologies. DISCUSSION: Incredible progress has been made during recent years, thus providing us with membranes of longevity and stability and, at the same time, high filtration capacity. However, these systems are expensive and delicate in operation, so that the majority of communities will not be able to afford them. Combinations of different phytoremediation technologies seem to be most promising to solve this burning problem. CONCLUSIONS: To quantify the occurrence and the distribution of micropollutants, to evaluate their effects, and to prevent them from passing through wastewater collection and treatment systems into rivers, lakes and ground water bodies represents an urgent task for applied environmental sciences in the coming years. RECOMMENDATIONS: Public acceptance of green technologies is generally higher than that of industrial processes. The EU should stimulate research to upgrade existing waste water treatment by implementing phytoremediation modules and demonstrating their reliability to the public.

Background, Aim and Scope The article is focused on dioxin, furan, PCB and organochlorine pesticide monitoring in the surface waters of the Central European, protected natural reserve Krivoklatsko, under the UNESCO programme Man and Biosphere. Persistent compounds are presently transported via different means throughout the entire world. This contamination varies significantly between sites. This raises the question of what constitutes the naturally occurring background levels of POPs in natural, unpolluted areas, but which are close to industrialised regions. Information of real background POP contamination can be of high value for risk assessment management of those sites evidently polluted and for the defining of de-contamination limits. Preserved areas should not be seen as isolated regions in which the impacts of human activities and natural factors are either unexpected or overlooked. Every ambient region, even those protected by a law or other means, are still closely connected to neighbouring human developed and impacted areas, and are therefore subject to this anthropogenic contamination. These areas adjacent to natural reserves are sources of diverse substances, via entry of air, water, soil and/or biota. After an extended period of industrial activities, organochlorine pollutants, even those emitted in trace concentrations have reached detectable levels. For future research and for the assessment of environmental changes, present levels of contamination would be of high importance. This work publishes data of the contamination with organochlorine pollutants of this natural region, where biodiversity and ecological functions are of the highest order. Materials and Methods: Semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) were utilised as the sampling system. SPMDs were deployed in two small creeks and one water reservoir selected in the central part of the Krivoklatsko Natural Reserve, where it could be expected that any possible contamination by POPs would be lowest. The exposed SPMDs were analysed both for chemical contents of POPs and for toxicity properties. The chemical analyses of dibenzo-dioxins, dibenzo-furans, PCBs and OCPs were analysed by GC/MS/MS on GCQ or PolarisQ (Thermoquest). Toxicity bioassays were performed on the alga Desmodesmus subspicatus, bacteria Vibrio fischeri and crustacean Daphnia magna. All toxicity data were expressed as the effective volume Vtox. Vtox is a toxicity parameter, the determination of which is independent of SPMD deployment time and pre-treatment dilution (unlike, for example, the EC50 of the SPMD extract). Results: The following chemical parameters were monitored: 1) tetra, penta, hexa and hepta dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans; 2) all those detectable from tri- through deca-polychloriated biphenyls (PCBs) and 3) a group of organochlorine pesticides: hexachlorobenzene and isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane, DDE, DDD and DDT. The concentrations of dioxins and furans on the assessed sites varied from under detection levels up to 7 pg.l-1; PCBs were detected in a sum concentration up to 2.8 ng.l-1; and organochlorine pesticides up to 346 pg.l-1. The responses of bioassays used were very low, with the values obtained for Vtox being under 0.03 l/d. Discussion: Toxicity testing showed no toxicity responses, demonstrating that the system used is in coherence with the ecological status of the assessed sites. Values of Vtox were under the critical value - showing no toxicity. The PCA of chemical analysis data and toxicity responses resulted in no correlations between these two groups of parameters. This demonstrated that the present level of contamination has had no direct adverse effects on the biota. Conclusions: The concentration values of six EPA-listed, toxic dioxins and sums of tetra-hepta dioxins; nine EPA toxic dibenzofurans and the sums of tetra-hepta bibenzofurans are presented together with all tri-deka PCBs and organochlorine pesticides (alfa-, beta-, gama-, delta-HCH, HCB, opDDE, ppDDE, opDDD, ppDDD, opDDT, ppDDT). These values represent possible current regional natural background values of these substances monitored within the Central European region, with no recorded adverse effects on the freshwater ecosystem (up until the present time). Recommendations and Perspectives: Assessment of dioxins, furans and other organochlorine compounds within natural reserves can be important for the monitoring of human-induced impacts on preserved areas. No systematic monitoring of these substances in areas not directly affected by industry has generally been realised. There is a paucity of data of the presence of any of these substances within natural regions. Further monitoring of contamination of both soil and biota by dioxins and furans in preserve regions is needed and can be used for future monitoring of man-made activities and/or accidents. Semipermeable membrane devices proved to be a very good sampling system for the monitoring of trace concentrations of ambient organochlorine compounds. Toxicity evaluation using the Vtox concept demonstrated that those localities assessed expressed no toxicity.

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE: Agricultural industrial wastes can frequently be used as raw materials in the production of bio-fuels. Olive-oil milling wastewater is considered as one of the most polluting agro-industrial residues, but fortunately due to its high content of organic matter, it has the potential to be a valuable starting material to obtain bio-ethanol via fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The fermentation of olive-oil milling wastewater has been demonstrated with good yield of ethanol (8-12%v/v) once the level of reducing sugars is appropriate and the phenolic fraction, which inhibits the yeast, is removed.Materials and Methods:-Results:-Discussion:-Conclusions:-Recommendations and Perspectives:-

To control tailpipe pollution, governments often use environmental product standards and consumption taxes in conjunction (for example, the use of fuel economy standards and gasoline taxes to restrict automobile pollution in the US). Further, the choice of standards and consumption taxes is often independently influenced by special interests. For example, domestic producers have the incentive to influence environmental product standards, and likewise, domestic consumers have the incentive to influence the choice of the consumption tax. In this paper we explore the political link between environmental standards and consumption taxes in the presence of independent special interests. We find that despite the independence of special interests, the political outcome is inextricably linked. This political link is different from the welfare maximizing second-best link usually expected between two related policies, and is crucial in correctly anticipating policy outcomes. Specifically, we find that the government's choice of an environmental standard influences political incentives in the choice of the consumption tax. As the environmental standard falls, a higher demand for the environmentally damaging product develops. This higher demand increases the incentives for consumers to lobby for lower consumption tax. Under certain conditions, this political link is large enough to result in a complementary relationship between the two policies in equilibrium. The complementary relationship implies that a lower standard results in a lower consumption tax and vice versa when the standard is higher.

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE: Electrocoagulation (EC) may be a potential answer to environmental problems dealing with water reuse and rational waste management. The aim of this research was to assess the feasibility of EC-process for industrial contaminated effluents from copper production, taking into consideration technical and economical factors. EC-technology claims to offer efficient removal rates for most types of wastewater impurities at low power consumption and without adding any precipitating agents. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Real wastewater from Saraka stream with high concentrations of heavy metals was provided by RTB-BOR, a Serbian copper mining and smelting complex. Runs were performed on a 10 1 EC-reactor using aluminum plates as sacrificial electrodes and powered by a 40 A supply unit. Results concerning key factors like pH, conductivity and power consumption were measured in real time. Analysis of dissolved metal concentrations before and after treatment were carried out via ICP-OES and confirmed by an independent test via AAS. RESULTS: Several aspects were taken into account, including current density, conductivity, interfacial resistivity and reactor settings throughout the runs, in order to analyze all possible factors playing a role in neutralization and metal removal in real industrial wastewater. DISCUSSION: Electrode configurations and their effects on energy demand were discussed and exemplified based on fundamentals of colloidal and physical chemistry. CONCLUSIONS: Based on experimental data and since no precipitating agents were applied, the EC-process proved to be not only feasible and environmentally-friendly, but also a cost-effective technology. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: The EC-technology provides strategic guidelines for further research and development of sustainable water management processes. However, additional test series concerning continuous operation must be still performed in order to get this concept ready for future large-scale applications.