The study represents results of productivity studies of mechanized ditch cleaning using Ponsse Fox harvester adapted to multi-tree handling H6 head in forest drainage systems managed by Joint stock company “Latvia state forests”. The aim of the study is to evaluate productivity of extraction of biomass from ditches depending on working method and to estimate factors affecting prime-cost of biofuel in mechanized harvesting. The study results demonstrate that the 2nd method (mechanized extraction of roundwood and following motor-manual cleaning of remaining vegetation) is the most efficient solution for mechanized cleaning of ditches. Benefits of the 2nd method are smaller costs of undergrowth removal and bigger output of solid biofuel. Ponsse Fox harvester demonstrated sufficient work quality and productivity in the trials; however, it would be wise to use heavier harvesters or caterpillar excavator based harvesters in ditch cleaning. Using the 2nd method, a harvester can extract about 227 ha of ditches (23,000 m3 ) annually.

Thermal wood modification has been intensively studied in the recent decades because of the possibility to produce wood with improved biodurability and dimensional stability without use of harmful chemicals. Beside altered physical characteristics, wood colour is changed to lighter or darker brown as a result of thermal treatment. Growth of interest in thermal wood treatment has stimulated numerous researches concerned with discoloration of thermally modified wood which is subjected to light exposure. The objective of this study was to evaluate the colour stability of thermally modified hardwood during storage in the dark where wood discolouration is not photoinduced but rather a result of oxidative ageing. Three thermally modified hardwood species – aspen (Populus tremula L.), alder (Alnus incana Moench), birch (Betula pendula Roth.), where investigated. Wood discoloration was monitored by spectrophotometrical measurements of reflectance spectra and chromaticity parameter calculations using CIELAB colour system where L* is the lightness, and a* and b* are the chromatic coordinates. The colour stability of thermally modified wood as well as of untreated wood of the same species was examined by means of assessment of the colour parameter changes (ΔL*, Δa*, Δb*, ΔEab). All wood specimens under study discoloured during the experiment, but the colour change did not exceed two units that are common and accepted for wood products. Untreated and thermally modified wood showed different trends of discoloration during storage in the dark. The final colour changes that were fixed at the end of the experiment were greater for the thermally treated wood.

Cumulative air pollution – synergy between different pollutants and environmental factors is one of the hardest to evaluate factors in the air quality monitoring field. The evaluation of cumulative effects is hindered by a lack of verified analytical frameworks. Currently used methods are relatively simple and use statistical models with small fixed number of pollutants in association with different factors. There is almost no one solution for direct, on-site cumulative effect measurements. The alternative is the use of Cumulative Pollution Index (CPI) method – solution designed for cumulative effect calculation from bioindication and air quality measurement data. However, this method is completely new and has never been used in the air pollution evaluation activities. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the opportunity to use CPI method as a cumulative pollution evaluation tool in air quality monitoring by doing measurements of cumulative effect in several air quality measurement stations in two cities of Latvia – Liepaja and Riga. Results show that Cumulative Pollution Index method is not only usable in air quality monitoring as a tool for cumulative effect evaluation, but can reveal new facts about air pollution and ways how it affects human and ecosystem health, – such climatic and environmental factors as humidity and temperature are more important than interactions between individual pollutants and can be considered main elements in forming of cumulative pollution impact.

Rural areas in Poland are characterized by great diversity in their functional spatial structure. Throughout history, their distinct features have been shaped by natural, historical and socio-economic factors. The aim of this study was to analyze the changes in the functional spatial structure of North-Eastern Poland. The analysis involved a comparison of data for 1988 and 2012. Research data was supplied mainly by the Central Statistical Office in Poland. The key drivers of change in the investigated region are agriculture, tourism, forestry and environmentally-friendly industrial processes. The results of the economic and social development are constantly changing in rural areas. Based on analysis, the functional structure of rural areas in North-Eastern Poland between 1988 and 2012 shows that they are more diversified. Over the years, rural areas in North-Eastern Poland were identified with agriculture but now they have multifunctional character.

Rural areas in Poland are vastly differentiated in their level of social and economic development. Adverse natural, social, economic and technological processes contribute to the formation of problem areas. Negative phenomena can spread across several municipalities, contributing to the number and severity of problems. Rural municipalities characterized by a low level of social and technical development are not attractive sites for prospective investors or home buyers. Geographical location can also contribute to the formation of problem areas. The Region of Warmia and Mazury borders the Kaliningrad Region, and it is one of the least developed areas in Poland. Rural areas in Warmia and Mazury are characterized by significant disparities in the level of social and economic development. The aim of this paper was to identify problem rural areas in the Region of Warmia and Mazury based on indicators of social, demographic, economic and infrastructure development. Problem areas in the Region of Warmia and Mazury were identified using Hellwig’s taxonomic measure of development. The results of our analysis indicate that in rural areas in the Region of Warmia and Mazury, the most severe problems are observed in typically agricultural municipalities which have a peripheral location and where state-owned farms had acted as the main employer.

The most efficient way to dewater sewage sludge is the thermal drying, which simultaneously with the granulation allows obtaining the product in the form of granules, being a non-putrescible fertilizer that is also easy for transportation, storage and bringing into soil. When large volumes of sewage sludge are formed, which are unfit for use in agriculture, application of other utilization methods, such as burning, would be purposeful. The aim is to determine the optimum drying modes of sewage sludge with application of pneumatic pulse method at treatment facilities in the pilot project. To do this, it is necessary to develop a proposal for the design of operating model. The design and making of working model is necessary to determine the optimal conditions for sewage sludge drying at sewage disposal works. The drying process is provided to be realized in a closed-loop cycle (without emission into atmosphere). Due to inner recirculation of dry air, the installation heat consumption is reduced. Calculations have shown that there is economic expediency of using the pneumatic pulse method in sewage sludge thermal drying technology and possibility of using sewage sludge as an alternative fuel. Optimization of sewage sludge thermal drying process with the use of pneumatic pulse method will considerably extend the perspectives for utilization and further use of sewage sludge.

The research was conducted during the period of 2007-2011 in the fields fertilized by manure of pig breeding complex. According to the fertilization value of manure, the following total nitrogen levels reached the fields each year: 2007 – 169, 2008 – 167, 2009 - 168, 2010 - 168, 2011 – 168 kg haE-1. Ptotal reached the fertilized fields accordingly: 2007 – 9.4, 2008 – 18.9, 2009 – 12.0, 2010 – 10.8, 2011 – 13.5 kg haE-1. The aim of the research was to explore the impact of manure fertilized fields of a pig breeding complex on the water quality of streams. Streams, flowing through fields fertilized with manure, are usually polluted with nitrogen. The increase in Ntotal concentrations in streams’ water below fertilized fields was affected by precipitation (r = -0.31), fertilization rate (r = 0.41) as well as mineral nitrogen reserves in the soil (r = 0.20). Phosphorus concentrations in streams’ water were low and corresponded to a very good streams’ water ecological condition, except in times, when the water inflowing into the fertilized fields was already contaminated with this element. It was determined that an extremely high impact on streams’ water quality below fertilized fields comes from Ptotal concentration in streams’ water above fertilized fields (r = 0.91) as well as from the drainage water inflowing from fertilized fields into the streams (r = 0.71). Neither Ntotal, nor Ptotal pollution was observed in drainage water, because the highest concentrations during the research period were lower than the maximum allowable concentrations by 1.1 and 6.5 times respectively.

Relationship between clients and consultants reveals and develops during the process of communication, because then not only do people interact, but they also get to know each other. Consultants and clients influence each other by sharing information, emotions and feelings. By influencing each other, they change attitudes, feelings and behaviour in the process of consultation. These relations influence the moral state of both consultants and clients, and while interacting, they influence efficiency of consultant activity as well. This paper analyses relationship between consultants and clients, as well as defines both factual and interpersonal aspects of communication.

The paper focuses on the analysis of agricultural externalities and their valuation methods. Agricultural activity beyond supplying food and fibre, can also be instrumental in forming the landscape, providing natural resources, and preserving biodiversity. Furthermore, agriculture contributes to the achievement of societal goals such as the viability of rural areas and their development, food security, and preservation of cultural heritage. Positive externalities of agriculture assert in the form of public goods, whereas intensive environmentally unbalanced agricultural activity causes damage to the environment. The objectives of this paper are to define agricultural externalities and to analyse methods of their valuation. In order to achieve the research aim, characteristics of agricultural externalities in farming systems have been analysed; evaluation methods of the benefit and cost of externalities in farming systems, revealing their advantages and disadvantages have been examined, and scientific studies on evaluation of externalities have been reviewed. Methods of systemic and logic analysis were applied for analysis of agricultural externalities and their evaluation. The analysis has showed that stated preference methods are commonly used for determination of the positive externalities. The most limited methods are travel cost and hedonic pricing methods, which are suitable only for the evaluation of public goods related to recreation or leisure. For evaluation of negative externalities the external costs of agricultural activity are estimated.

Tourism industry is becoming one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Considering its significance in the economy of many countries, the research in tourism is growing, as well. Achieving to develop tourism industry, tourist satisfaction becomes a considerable goal for many countries. In this article, rural tourism is taken into consideration. However, scientific research in the field of Lithuanian rural tourist satisfaction is still scarce. Therefore, the level of Lithuanian rural tourist satisfaction and the factors determining their satisfaction are being determined in current research aiming to elaborate Rural Tourist Satisfaction Index in Lithuanian framework. Research results highlighted that the determinants of Lithuanian rural tourist satisfaction are: ‘accommodation and catering’, ‘destination aesthetics’, ‘environmental preservation’, ‘destination marketing’ and ‘perceived value’. Rural tourists in Lithuania value the benefits of ‘green marketing’, amenities and the efforts of expanding the variety of activities; the emphasis of all these aspects is perceived as ‘destination marketing’. On the other hand, levels of activities in rural destinations, quality of accommodation and catering, and aesthetics in Lithuanian rural destinations are insufficient. Enhancing these aspects could result in higher satisfaction and loyalty levels of rural tourists, and that would contribute to the rural tourism development in Lithuania.