Climate change poses a significant challenge to the agricultural system worldwide, particularly in a nation like South Africa, where water scarcity and food insecurity are prevalent. This study examines the association between the adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural Technology (CSAT) and gender-differential food-nutrition and water security (FNWS) in South Africa. Drawing on a combination of quantitative analysis and qualitative insights from smallholder sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) farming communities, a multistage sampling procedure was employed in selecting sunflower farmers across some selected villages in South Africa. To understand the linkages between CSAT, household’s food-nutrition and water security outcomes (FNWS); endogenous switching regression (ESR) model was employed to achieve the objective. Herewith, water poverty index was used to measure the water security status, while dietary diversity index (Simpson Index) and calorie intake per adult equivalent were used to determine the food-nutrition security (FNS) of the households. The results show that female-headed smallholder sunflower farmers' FNS - dietary diversity and calorie intake increased by 28 % and 30 % respectively while the water poverty index reduced by 18 %. On the other hand, that of their male counterpart increased by 21 % and 35 % respectively while the water poverty index reduced by 23 %, indicating that the farmers’ decisions to adopt CSAT influenced their FNWS outcomes. Additionally, CSAT adoption is influenced by access to extension services, climate change information, and off-farm income. Therefore, the study concludes that CSAT adoption enhances water availability, crop yield and FNWS. Therefore, policy on investment in capacity-building initiatives to enhance farmers' knowledge and skills in CSAT adoption, and water resource management, particularly targeting the marginalized communities and women farmers would contribute to the increased implementation of CSAT adoption, thus, resulting in the overall FNWS in South Africa.

Agricultural activities are the third largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in China. Quantifying the driving effect for the evolution of China's agricultural carbon emissions is of great significance to the green development of agriculture and the achievement of "carbon peaking" by 2030. Based on the perspective of the relationship among water, energy, food, land, population, and carbon, this paper studied the driving effect for the evolution of China's agricultural carbon emissions from 2003 to 2022 and selected the influencing factors under the theoretical framework of interaction among the six factors. It employed the logarithmic mean divisia index (LMDI) method to decompose the driving factors of China's agricultural carbon emissions. The results show that agricultural labor productivity, land use efficiency, actual irrigation efficiency per <italic>mu</italic>, effective irrigation ratio, water use efficiency in farmland, population scale, and energy emission intensity are the factors that promote the increase in agricultural carbon emissions in China, among which agricultural labor productivity has the greatest effect, with a cumulative contribution rate of 286.84% to China's agricultural carbon emissions. Agricultural employment structure, energy consumption intensity, farmland use intensity, and actual irrigation ratio are the factors that inhibit the increase in agricultural carbon emissions in China, among which the agricultural employment structure and energy consumption intensity are the main factors that inhibit the growth of agricultural carbon emissions, with the absolute values of the cumulative contribution rates being 290.04% and 186.76%, respectively. Therefore, it is recommended to jointly consider the driving effects, focus on optimizing the agricultural employment structure and improving energy utilization efficiency, and formulate corresponding policies to reduce agricultural carbon emissions.

IntroductionThe food security of any country is directly dependent on the production of its agricultural sector, and any disruption in the production process of this sector can directly threaten the food, social, economic and even political security of the country. In other words, the agricultural sector, as a productive sector, is responsible for eliminating and reducing poverty and ensuring food security. In the current situation, due to the ever-increasing demand and the significant growth of the population, the indiscriminate and incorrect exploitation of limited and non-renewable resources and reserves, as well as the occurrence of challenges such as climate change, ensuring food security and maintaining it, are of great importance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the availability of crop products in Razavi Khorasan province in two horizons of 5 and 10 years under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation in accordance with the water capacity of the province and to provide appropriate solutions.Materials and MethodsThis study was carried out in Razavi Khorasan province for the time period of 2017-2020 as the baseline and 2024-2028 and 2024-2033 as 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. The information needed for this study was obtained through documentary and library studies, generally by referring to the official centers that publish the country's information and published documents (especially the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Razavi Khorasan province), field information and also by completing the questionnaire from national experts and holding meetings with stakeholders and experts. Finally, the changes in the harvested area, yield, production, volume of water consumption and water productivity of important irrigated (under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation) and rainfed crops, as well as indicators of per-capita consumption, production, demand, trade, and the percentage of self-reliance of these crops were estimated and evaluated in 5- and 10-year horizons compared to the baseline (2017-2020).Results and DiscussionAccording to the results, if the objectives of this study are achieved, the crop water requirement and total water consumption will decrease across both scenarios and time horizons, while water productivity will improve compared to the baseline. In the projected horizon periods, the yield of both irrigated and rainfed crops will increase compared to the baseline. The harvested area of irrigated crops will decrease, while the harvested area of rainfed crops will expand. However, under deficit irrigation conditions, the production of both rainfed and irrigated crops will rise, whereas irrigated crop production under full irrigation conditions will decline, aligning with water balance objectives. These changes will occur mainly due to the increase in the harvested area and production of fodder sorghum, silage, fodder beet, and autumn beet and the decrease in the harvest area and production of alfalfa, irrigated vegetable crops, and spring beet. Despite the increase in the demand of important crop products of the province in 5- and 10-year horizons by 10 and 17% (considering population growth and improvement in per-capita consumption), respectively, the amount of production of these products will decrease by 2% in 5-year horizon and increase by only 1% in 10-year horizon. Therefore, it is predicted that the self-reliance of the province's total production will decrease from 74% in the baseline to 68% and 67% in the 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. In order to achieve the results of this study, solutions such as paying attention to aquifers and watersheds, cultivation of fallow lands, increasing soil organic matter, real development of conservation agriculture, development of autumn and waiting planting, development of alternative crops (especially fodder crops), and provision, production, distribution, and consumption of inputs in a timely and appropriate manner are suggested.ConclusionIn total, the results of this research showed that the proposed production pattern for crops in Razavi Khorasan province and 5 and 10-year horizons will be consistent with the water capacity of the province, especially in the deficit irrigation scenario. However, the realization of the results of this study requires the categories of "research", "technology", "education and empowerment", and "promotion of achievements".

IntroductionThe food security of any country is directly dependent on the production of its agricultural sector, and any disruption in the production process of this sector can directly threaten the food, social, economic and even political security of the country. In other words, the agricultural sector, as a productive sector, is responsible for eliminating and reducing poverty and ensuring food security. In the current situation, due to the ever-increasing demand and the significant growth of the population, the indiscriminate and incorrect exploitation of limited and non-renewable resources and reserves, as well as the occurrence of challenges such as climate change, ensuring food security and maintaining it, are of great importance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the availability of crop products in Razavi Khorasan province in two horizons of 5 and 10 years under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation in accordance with the water capacity of the province and to provide appropriate solutions.Materials and MethodsThis study was carried out in Razavi Khorasan province for the time period of 2017-2020 as the baseline and 2024-2028 and 2024-2033 as 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. The information needed for this study was obtained through documentary and library studies, generally by referring to the official centers that publish the country's information and published documents (especially the Ministry of Agriculture and the Agricultural Jihad Organization of Razavi Khorasan province), field information and also by completing the questionnaire from national experts and holding meetings with stakeholders and experts. Finally, the changes in the harvested area, yield, production, volume of water consumption and water productivity of important irrigated (under two scenarios of full irrigation and deficit irrigation) and rainfed crops, as well as indicators of per-capita consumption, production, demand, trade, and the percentage of self-reliance of these crops were estimated and evaluated in 5- and 10-year horizons compared to the baseline (2017-2020).Results and DiscussionAccording to the results, if the objectives of this study are achieved, the crop water requirement and total water consumption will decrease across both scenarios and time horizons, while water productivity will improve compared to the baseline. In the projected horizon periods, the yield of both irrigated and rainfed crops will increase compared to the baseline. The harvested area of irrigated crops will decrease, while the harvested area of rainfed crops will expand. However, under deficit irrigation conditions, the production of both rainfed and irrigated crops will rise, whereas irrigated crop production under full irrigation conditions will decline, aligning with water balance objectives. These changes will occur mainly due to the increase in the harvested area and production of fodder sorghum, silage, fodder beet, and autumn beet and the decrease in the harvest area and production of alfalfa, irrigated vegetable crops, and spring beet. Despite the increase in the demand of important crop products of the province in 5- and 10-year horizons by 10 and 17% (considering population growth and improvement in per-capita consumption), respectively, the amount of production of these products will decrease by 2% in 5-year horizon and increase by only 1% in 10-year horizon. Therefore, it is predicted that the self-reliance of the province's total production will decrease from 74% in the baseline to 68% and 67% in the 5- and 10-year horizons, respectively. In order to achieve the results of this study, solutions such as paying attention to aquifers and watersheds, cultivation of fallow lands, increasing soil organic matter, real development of conservation agriculture, development of autumn and waiting planting, development of alternative crops (especially fodder crops), and provision, production, distribution, and consumption of inputs in a timely and appropriate manner are suggested.ConclusionIn total, the results of this research showed that the proposed production pattern for crops in Razavi Khorasan province and 5 and 10-year horizons will be consistent with the water capacity of the province, especially in the deficit irrigation scenario. However, the realization of the results of this study requires the categories of "research", "technology", "education and empowerment", and "promotion of achievements".

Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) is a type of multipurpose palm with significant economic and environmental value and is widely distributed in Indonesia. All parts of the sugar palm plant organs, from the leaves to the roots, can be utilized, giving it great potential as a superior commodity such as coconut and oil palm. Our review highlighted there are several limitations for developing A. pinnata on an industrial scale. Currently, the A. pinnata industry operates mainly on a household scale, with raw materials sourced from natural stands rather than large-scale cultivation. Additionally, there is no breeding program for A. pinnata trees, resulting in variety and often low sap yields. Traditional management practices further hinder business development and market competitiveness. To promote A. pinnata as a superior commodity for food, energy, and water conservation in Indonesia, several strategies can be implemented: 1) Training and capacity building to increasing farmers' knowledge and skills in cultivating this species, 2) Optimizing the production process and product value chain development of palm sugar and other products such as candy seed, starch, and fibres, 3) Fostering collaboration among stakeholders, especially the government, through policies that support farmers in developing and marketing their products, 4) Promote A. pinnata in watershed rehabilitation and agroforestry for its deep roots that enhance water infiltration, prevent erosion, boost biodiversity, and retain soil moisture. These strategies will help enhance the productivity of A. pinnata, improve farmer welfare, and contribute to environmental sustainability.

Clay marshes are rare but highly productive ecosystems in Europe, supporting large populations of waterbirds and marsh birds. However, sustaining these high numbers of species and individuals proves to be a challenge, even though it is of high priority for the national and Natura 2000 management goals. Clay marshes typically exhibit boom-and-bust cycles, where bird numbers peak after marsh creation, following drainage or after re-inundation, and then decline. The exact mechanisms behind this boom-bust phase remain unknown but appear to be driven by water level, with a significant role for vegetation succession and the associated habitat and food availability. This research takes place in the Oostvaardersplassen, a eutrophic clay marsh, undergoing a multi-year drawdown to enhance heterogeneity and biodiversity, particularly for marsh birds. We studied habitat and food availability, in relation to water level and key species (red deer, geese and large carp) to understand the boom-bust cycles. Results show that water level drives vegetation succession and determines the accessibility and availability of food for birds. During drying periods, the previous lakebed is quickly colonized by pioneer vegetation, followed over time by perennial vegetation, such as reed. Grazing, by geese during inundated periods (e.g., winter and wet spring 2024) and by red deer during dry periods, strongly influences the vegetation composition, vegetation height, and specifically reed expansion. However, reed continues to expand even in the presence of herbivores. The presence of fish, in this case large common carp, reduces food availability for wetland birds, especially benthos biomass. Water level interacts by creating spatial and temporal variation in fish presence during low water levels, allowing benthos biomass to increase and making it possible for benthivorous fish and benthivorous birds to coexist. Furthermore, our research shows that repeatedly implementing a multi-year drawdown will not always lead to the same outcome, dependent on seed bank composition and environmental filters (e.g., water level, nutrients, soil elevation) that play a role in the vegetation community that will eventually be established from this seed bank. In conclusion, there is ample room for natural processes, such as large-scale water level fluctuations, in productive (managed) clay marshes. Natural water level dynamics steer boom-bust cycles in bird populations by determining habitat heterogeneity and food availability, also leading to varying community assemblages across other species groups. The implementation of a water level drawdown will lead to alternative successional trajectories driven by water level and seed bank composition, presumably without losing productivity in the long term (depending on drawdown frequency). In this era of global change and global loss of biodiversity, restoration of wetland systems can aid in halting the deterioration of nature areas and increase biodiversity. Asynchronous cycles in water level and vegetation over space and time are likely to result in the highest biodiversity. The results from this thesis can support the restoration of both natural and managed wetlands and aid in decision making. Therefore, we recommend the implementation of a water level drawdown in eutrophic clay wetlands to generate more biodiverse and resilient ecosystems.

The Water-Energy-Food (WEF) Nexus has emerged as an innovative platform to assist with sustainable resource management. This review paper describes the WEF Nexus evolution during the last century and highlights its advances in tools, frameworks, and concepts. The paper critically assesses several aspects of the WEF Nexus including the milestones, major WEF frameworks, tools and models developed over the last twenty years, different WEF Nexus conceptualizations, and the significant support and investments reported in the 21st century. The relationship between the WEF Nexus and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is analyzed based on Nexus research studies, regional strategies or national programs were achieving WEF components lead to targeting some specific SDGs. The analysis of the principal WEF Nexus challenges and gaps emphasizes nature-driven crises such as water scarcity, energy shocks, and food shortages. Finally, the paper proposes a new business model that aims to quantify the water, energy, and food resources by country. The conceptual framework develops a WEF security index based on internationally recognized metrics and includes disaster risk and climate change, as well as trade-off as threats and contingency factors that are considered in the model. This review proposes a novel platform to assess the WEF security index per country as a pathway to contribute to SDGs 6,7,2,8 and 13.

Irrigation plays a crucial role in enhancing food production, increasing land productivity, and improving the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Solar pumps and water harvesting ponds have emerged as promising technologies for sustainable agriculture for smallholders in SSA and beyond. The socio-economic impacts of these systems are less studied in the existing literature. This study examined the agricultural productivity of solar pump and water harvesting irrigation technologies and their impacts on income and food security among smallholder farmers in the Central Rift Valley, Lake Hawassa, and Upper Awash sub-basin areas in Ethiopia. Data were collected from 161 farming households that were selected randomly from woredas where solar pump and water harvesting pond irrigation systems had been implemented. The sample size was determined using the power calculation method. Bio-physical observation and measurements were also conducted at field levels. The benefit–cost ratio (BCR) and net water value (NWV) from the use of solar pump and water harvesting pond irrigations were analyzed to assess the viability of these systems. The household food consumption score (HFCS) and household dietary diversity score (HDDS) were calculated to measure food security, while the revenue from crop production was used to measure crop income. An endogenous switching regression model was applied to address the endogeneity nature of the adoption of the irrigation technologies. The counterfactual analysis, specifically the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT), was used to evaluate the impacts of the irrigation technologies on income and food security. Results indicate that the ATT of crop income, HFCS, and HDDS are positive and statistically significant, illustrating the role of these irrigation systems in enhancing smallholder farmers’ welfare. Moreover, smallholder farmers’ solar pump irrigation systems were found to be economically viable for few crops, with a BCR greater than 1.0 and an NWV ranging from 0.21 to 1.53 USD/m³. It was also found that bundling agricultural technologies with solar pump irrigation systems leads to enhanced agricultural outputs and welfare. The sustainable adoption and scale-up of these irrigation systems demand addressing technical and financial constraints, as well as input and output market challenges.

The use of local plant extracts in drinking water purification represents a sustainable alternative in the fight against diseases linked to unsafe water consumption in rural areas. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biochemical composition and antimicrobial activity of four local plant extracts used in rural areas of Burkina Faso to purify drinking water: Moringa oleifera seeds, Boscia senegalensis seeds, Opuntia ficus-indica cladodes, and Aloe vera leaves. These four extracts were then subjected to biochemical screening to identify phytocompounds, followed by quantification and evaluation of their antibacterial properties on ten pathogenic bacterial strains. The screening results revealed the presence of a variety of molecules (phenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponosides, etc.) in the different extracts studied. From a quantitative point of view, M. oleifera and B. senegalensis seeds showed a high total protein content (34.5 and 24.6 g/100 g DM). A. vera and O. ficus-indica extracts showed high levels of total carbohydrates (20.4 and 35.52 g/100 g DM) compared with total lipids and proteins. The same applies to phenolic compounds, which were also high in A. vera and O. ficus-indica extracts (17.42 and 26.5 mg GAE/100 mg DM) compared to M. oleifera and B. senegalensis seeds. In terms of antibacterial properties, the four extracts studied showed inhibition diameters ranging from 7.33 to 16.33 mm. These results reflect the ability of the different extracts to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms present in water. Overall, this study stands out for its innovative character, offering an in-depth understanding of the biochemical composition and antimicrobial properties of four distinct extracts of local plants commonly used in traditional drinking water purification practices. It enriches existing knowledge by providing new data on the biochemical composition and bioactivity of these extracts. In particular, the study highlights the synergistic effects of the bioactive compounds present, underlining their essential role in improving the sanitary quality of water consumed in rural areas, where sustainable and accessible solutions are crucial.