Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) are the device that involves bacteria and organic matter, to generate electrical current via bacterial metabolism from a wide range of organic and inorganic substrates. MFCs are novel bioreactors, that convert chemical energy into electrochemical energy through bio-catalysis of various wastes (agriculture, food, households, food processing industries) using microorganisms. MFC is a promising approach that offers direct, clean, green energy generation, ease of waste recyclability, and by-product utilization of different sources. In recent, MFCs research advances related to electrode development and utilization of suitable different rural and urban wastes is a significant interest in the MFC application. Hence in a large-scale application, the MFC concept is one of the effective technologies for the management of different wastes and is simultaneously used for electricity generation to cater to the energy demand in rural or remote areas that are not linked to the electric grid. MFCs help reduce the global energy crisis and reduce the pressure on non-renewable energy resources.

**Revised edition published April 2022** The primary responsibility for providing on-the-ground services and for ensuring the controlled management of solid waste, on the other hand, lies with the local authorities. Often fiscally constrained with many competing priorities beyond waste, local authorities may have limited ability to deliver adequate services. Their technical and operational capacities may be stretched, resulting in sub-optimal arrangements for service delivery, or in poor engagement with stakeholders that are crucial to implementation of local services, including the general population and other waste generators, the private sector, and the informal sector. This paper discusses good practices for the governance of the solid waste management sector in a context of pressing need. The document is organized along seven chapters. Together, these chapters aim to give practical guidance on waste management governance to national and local authorities as well as practitioners.

Excessive food waste (nearly 1.3 billion tons per annum) has exacerbated the world hunger crisis. This comprehensive review focuses on the food waste scenario, adverse effects, food waste management, existing waste management policies, and regulations in Bangladesh. Municipalities and urban centers generate 3.78 million tons of waste each year (15.96% of total food waste). This study utilized the national database to analyze food waste generation and projected growth by the year 2050. Yearly an estimated 17215.2 thousand acres of land and a significant amount of natural resources (water, energy) are being used to produce 23691.15 thousand tons of wasted food (45% of total food production). This study critically analyzed the waste management policy gap of Bangladesh and clearly identified each stage of the food loss production supply chain. The study assessed that yearly 481.6 MW energy could be generated from food waste. Focusing on effective policy and sustainability, a national food waste management model has been proposed for Bangladesh in compliance with sustainable development goals 12.3.1 global food loss. Food accumulates 16.7% to 20% of the world economy; therefore, any measures taken to reduce the food waste will be economically beneficial and environmentally sustainable.

Since 2015, a year of the adoption of the Waste Management Code, Georgia has achieved significant progress towards an integrated solid waste management system. Regardless, there are several solid waste management challenges that the country struggles to overcome and is far from meeting the ambitious targets detailed in the National Solid Waste Management Strategy, which is harmonized with European Union standards. Some of the challenges include the need for improving waste collection coverage; reducing waste quantities in landfills; managing waste in an environmentally sound, safe manner; eliminating illegal dumping and littering through better waste collection, monitoring, and law enforcement; transforming municipal solid waste (MSW) management service delivery organizations from almost fully subsidized entities into truly autonomous, self-sufficient organizations with full cost-recovery; and introducing circular economy principles, including those for waste prevention, re-use, redesign, recycling and recovery. With a view to identify key solid waste sector gaps looking at the sector holistically and suggest short to longer-term interventions together with required investments, in mid-January 2021 the World Bank launched a solid waste sector study. The study was carried out by a team of local and international experts using combined methods of a desk review of existing literature and data, interviews with key decision-makers (e.g. representatives of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Agriculture (MEPA), Solid Waste Management Company of Georgia (SWMCG) and cleaning /amenity services of local municipalities), questionnaire surveys of local municipalities, a gap analysis and, a spatial analysis via application of Geo-Information Systems (GIS). This paper seeks to assess high-level, solid waste management in Georgia to identify gaps in implementation of the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) and National Waste Management Action Plan (NWMAP) and to propose solutions linked to an operational roadmap and a program for short-, medium-, and long-term interventions for hard and soft investments.

The Waste Management Hierarchy is used as a guiding principle for waste management of industrial solid waste. Further, it is extended for the management of industrial liquid effluents as well. The Waste Management Hierarchy consists of the five levels namely; waste prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery, and disposal. This five-tiered Waste Management Hierarchy has been adopted by the European Union under the Waste Framework Directive as a decision-making tool. This paper explores some of the technology options known and available and categorizes them according to the five levels of the Waste Management Hierarchy. This paper presents brief case studies that highlight some benefits to those who embrace this decision-making tool.

E-waste entails electronic equipment and or part thereof, which is or considered obsolete resulting in it being discarded with no intention for reuse. The advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has seen a rapid increase in electronic waste across the globe. However, while universally, volumes of e-waste are exponentially increasing, the ability of most developing cities to manage such waste has not. In Harare Zimbabwe, e-waste has become an additional waste management challenge as there are few e-waste recycling companies, and more informal “recyclers”. More often than not, these recyclers are ignorantly vulnerable to e-waste related diseases emanating from e-waste related pollution. It is in the light of this, that this study aimed to assess electronic waste management in Harare, Zimbabwe with the primary objective of developing a feasible e-waste management model for the city. To this end, the research was a mixed-methods study of interviews, structured questionnaires, observations and laboratory experiments. Primary data revealed that e-waste is being dumped at both the city’s official dumpsites and also on roadside dumps across residential areas, mostly high and medium density areas. While laboratory analyses exposed the presence of e-waste related heavy metals on selected dumpsites as well as at other non-dumpsite areas in Harare. Conversely, a review of secondary data testified that Zimbabwe’s current environmental legislation is bereft to non-specific about e-waste. With no legislative framework nor e-waste management services available therefore, the recycling of e-waste has largely been left to informal recyclers. Overall, findings disclosed that due to its inept management, electronic waste has become an environmental threat to both Harare’s environs and some of its inhabitants. It is in view of these findings, that the study recommends that there be: (i) specific legislation on the management of e-waste in Zimbabwe, (ii) Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) in the management of e-waste, (iii) a model for proper e-waste management be developed to guide the management of e-waste, and (iv) that people be educated on the dangers of e-waste and the importance of its proper management. | Ph. D. (Environmental Science) | Environmental Sciences

Indonesia is the second largest contributor to plastic waste after China. Despite the regulation, waste management in Indonesia has not met the standards of waste management that are environmentally sound. This forfeits the benefits of the waste management itself and brings negative impacts on public health and environment. This condition is aggravated by the costly access towards health facility. For this reason, socialization regarding waste management is needed. In addition, this program is equipped with an introduction towards waste bank and waste insurance as a practical solution. The existence of both options are expected to solve the problem of waste and health services for the community. The program aimed to help residents of RW 014 Kelurahan Tulusrejo, Malang City to comprehend the types of waste, separation of waste by category, impact on health, recycling and other details. The meetings were carried out twice from March to October 2020. The result of the agenda is that the residents continue to process waste using composter and are expected to form an independent waste bank management for local residents. Further, they are encouraged to learn more about waste insurance to manage the local waste in a more environment friendly manner.

MSc (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus | Waste management in South Africa faces numerous challenges, including a growing population and economy, which cause an increase in the generation of waste. Limited human and financial capacity, the absence of infrastructure and equipment, coupled with the declining levels of capital investment and maintenance, present a challenge to most South African municipalities as far as municipal solid waste management is concerned. Previous research reports on the challenges faced with regards to waste management in the Limpopo Province, highlights the need for further research at a local municipality level. This study aimed to evaluate the municipal solid waste management system in Polokwane Local Municipality, with a focus on identifying challenges and gaps, to, ultimately, make recommendations for improvement. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, a mixed method (qualitative and quantitative) research approach was adopted. Primary data was collected through observations, interviews with waste managers, and survey questionnaires with general workers. Secondary data was collected from literature review and evaluation of the Polokwane Local Municipality integrated waste management plan (IWMP) and integrated development plan (IDP), as well as supporting documents. The results of the study indicate that some challenges exist with the implementation of national waste management legislation as it relates to the storage, collection, transportation and final disposal of waste, which may influence the municipality’s waste management system performance. When comparing the IWMP goals to the goals of the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS), the results revealed a gap linking all of the goals, especially Goals 3 and 7. Observations revealed challenges with regards to insufficient receptacles for waste storage, with limited to no separation at source, as well as insufficient operations at the landfill site, with inadequate daily cover, irregular inspection of vehicles at the access gate leading to incorrect data being reported to the SAWIS system. Interview with waste management officers revealed that financial management, equipment management, labour management, and institutional behaviour are the main factors influencing waste management systems within the municipality. Surveys completed by general waste workers indicated that a lack of adequate human resources, and insufficient basic waste management awareness and skills are cause for concern. An improvement in human resource capacity, with a focus on training was recommended. | Masters

Since 2015, a year of the adoption of the Waste Management Code, Georgia has achieved significant progress towards an integrated solid waste management system. Regardless, there are several solid waste management challenges that the country struggles to overcome and is far from meeting the ambitious targets detailed in the National Solid Waste Management Strategy, which is harmonized with European Union standards. Some of the challenges include the need for improving waste collection coverage; reducing waste quantities in landfills; managing waste in an environmentally sound, safe manner; eliminating illegal dumping and littering through better waste collection, monitoring, and law enforcement; transforming municipal solid waste (MSW) management service delivery organizations from almost fully subsidized entities into truly autonomous, self-sufficient organizations with full cost-recovery; and introducing circular economy principles, including those for waste prevention, re-use, redesign, recycling and recovery. With a view to identify key solid waste sector gaps looking at the sector holistically and suggest short to longer-term interventions together with required investments, in mid-January 2021 the World Bank launched a solid waste sector study. The study was carried out by a team of local and international experts using combined methods of a desk review of existing literature and data, interviews with key decision-makers (e.g. representatives of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Agriculture (MEPA), Solid Waste Management Company of Georgia (SWMCG) and cleaning /amenity services of local municipalities), questionnaire surveys of local municipalities, a gap analysis and, a spatial analysis via application of Geo-Information Systems (GIS). This paper seeks to assess high-level, solid waste management in Georgia to identify gaps in implementation of the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) and National Waste Management Action Plan (NWMAP) and to propose solutions linked to an operational roadmap and a program for short-, medium-, and long-term interventions for hard and soft investments.

Immunisation activities generate sharps and infectious non-sharp waste that have harmful impact on the community and health care workers if disposed of improperly, leading to carbon mono oxide (CO) emissions which contribute to global warming. Health care waste is not effectively managed, especially in some developing countries. However, measles supplemental immunisation activities (SIAs) are used to strengthen routine immunisation system, including waste management. The waste management planning provides an opportunity to build capacity, mobilize resources and strengthen structures to ensure continual disposal of routine immunisation waste.We reviewed the Kebbi State and LGA routine immunisation waste management situation and identified existing gaps; developed and implemented the plan for waste management, including strengthening routine immunisation waste management. The process included, reactivation of measles technical coordination committee, mobilizing resources for funding, and sustenance of immunisation waste management. The health care workforce was trained in safe immunisation waste disposal practices.Immunisation waste management committee and the structure was established and strengthened at the state and LGA levels and a total cost of 11,710.70 USD was expended on injection waste management, with an average cost per injection of 0.01 USD. A total of 11,829 safety boxes were incinerated in the state, including those generated from routine immunisation sessions. Twenty-one Local Immunisation Officers, 1097 and 2192 team supervisors and healthcare worker vaccinators respectively were trained on immunisation waste disposal.Immunisation waste management strategies protect healthcare workers and reduce the adverse impact on the environment. Improving key areas such as human and financial resources ensures accountability towards sustainable healthcare waste management.